Aluminum Products,Aluminum Products Manufacturers,Quality Aluminum Products

Versatile Features of Aluminum Tubing

2010-07-27T13:26:00.002-07:00

The rising cost in construction and manufacturing has led to more individuals to seek out cost effect construction and manufacturing materials to produce their products with. One metal found in abundance all over the earth is aluminum. Aluminum fits the bill when it comes to being cost effective and applicable in many different ways.

The properties of aluminum make it the perfect metal for aluminum tubing that is used in many different forms in construction and manufacturing. Aluminum is strong, malleable, light weight and conducts both heat and electricity very well.

Aluminum tubing can be formed and designed per specification for construction or manufacturing purposes. This has made aluminum one of the preferred metals for designers. With no limitation in the creativity of a designer, they are able to design and create in any manner they desire, instead of creating designs based on what materials are available.

Aluminum tubing production that is cost effective

Aluminum tubing is created using an extrusion process that is cost effective. There is little waste in production; therefore this is considered the most economical process. The dies used to create aluminum tubing are less costly than dies and casts that cost thousands of dollars. Hundreds of dollars are spent on the dies for aluminum tubing.

Many dies for industrial purposes can only be used one time and then have to be replaced. The dies used in aluminum tubing production can be used many times over. This savings is reflected in lower production cost with a longer shelf life and less waste.

The formula that is followed in the creation of the tubing uses a standard die. This allows the creation of tubing that can be of various designs, simply by following the formula for a constant strength to weight proportion. The malleable characteristic of the aluminum is what makes this possible.

Various shapes of aluminum tubing

The formula of constant strength to weight that is incorporated into aluminum tubing makes this metal the better choice than copper or steel tubes. The disadvantage of using copper and steel tubing is that both metals weight significantly more than aluminum and are not as malleable as aluminum.

The automotive and construction fields use aluminum because of the heat shield properties it has. These heat absorption characteristics push aluminum up to the front of the line for practical application in construction and automotives. Aluminum can be bent and shaped to fit any design without additional expenditures to make this happen.

Aluminum tubing can be shaped in cylindrical shapes and square as well. According to purpose, aluminum can be made to differ in outer and inner diameters and with different alloys. It is wise to use a pressure rating when determining the maximum bend radius and temperature range that you will need for your particular application.

High Temperature heat treatment

When aluminum tubing will be used in an environment with high temperatures it is wise to use heat treated aluminum that can withstand high temperatures. Aluminum works very well in low temperatures but needs the heat treatment to stand up under high temperatures.

Artistic application

Artists, designers, even crafters love aluminum tubing because it is easily colored by different processes, chemicals and electric. The metal is easily colored by natural properties that take in color.

Easy connections

Nuts, bolts, rivets and welds make it possible to connect the aluminum tubes securely and in a variety of formations. This easy malleability of aluminum has made this metal preferred by industrial applications as well as manufacturing and many other areas of industry as well. Construction of cost effective buildings that can be in any configuration, size and height has made aluminum the first choice in metals for designers around the world.

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Aluminum Signs and Steel Signs For Outdoor Use

2010-07-27T13:26:00.001-07:00

Aluminum signs are important materials that work out well with any signage that we have for different aluminum products. This as well can be made more valuable when we have different things that can come along with the best opportunities that can manage different signage materials by using aluminum as the main component. The advantage of using aluminum materials for outdoor uses mainly focuses on the advantage that it brings in providing lightweight materials that are necessary for these different uses. With aluminum signs, they are most preferred because of its thin elements including the easy installation of these aluminum signs that can be used even for outdoor purposes.

So what are the advantages in using these aluminum signs? Aluminum signs have the edge because they are made of lightweight materials and are also considered as well as rigid and flexible. Due to this, we can also consider aluminum as durable and would even last for a period of 15 years for its durability. The installation of these steel signs can also be considered as important in working towards the different changes that can be made in working and making through some various efforts needed to make this one as complete as possible. With aluminum signs or steel signs, we will always have that take of getting a durable material that we can work towards these processes.

These steel signs are also necessary in producing different elements and necessary changes that can work well together in administering different opportunities for aluminum signs uses. With it's one sided or two sided seaway we can also provide different combination details that will be able to take charge once we use these for outdoor purposes. It's also a great idea to explore and take some opportunities in managing the different steps that we can offer for aluminum signs and its different uses. Artworks and any other designs as well can be used for these different purposed let alone the different combination and factors that can work out well in looking closely at how well this can provide great use especially in directional use and other different functions as well for these different steel signs.

Choosing aluminum materials for different signs are cost effective means in giving out the necessary elements that can provide one with change and a whole lot of experience in administering these different changes. Once this happens, it can further provide a great and holistic approach in sending out details that we will be able to use in different outdoor activities and uses as well. So there's really no doubt on how well these different signs can create opportunities in working towards the process of providing effective and directional changes that we can use in outdoor activities as well.

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Aluminum Foil Steam Table Pans

2010-07-27T13:25:00.000-07:00

Aluminum foil pans are the most versatile disposable food containers produced today. Steam table foil pans are cost-effective, practical, and intended for one-time use. They are designed to withstand extreme temperature ranges, from below freezing to broiler oven temperatures. For these reasons, they are the #1 choice for food transport used by restaurants, caterers, and chefs within the food service industry. There is no need to clean them up after using, simply discard in a recyclable manner. Aluminum can be recycled a countless number of times, therefore we suggest recycling aluminum products whenever possible.

With such an extensive selection of foil containers and products to choose from online, it can sometimes become confusing to the consumer. This guide will help you in choosing which specific pan fit your needs.

Steam Table Foil Pan Background

Almost all US manufactured foil pans are made with aluminum alloy 3003. The strength of a foil pan is determined by how thick the aluminum sheet is, which is measured by its gauge. A heavier gauge results in a stronger pan. Many US manufacturers make several different gauges of the same sized pan to allow for economical usage in different applications. For example, transporting light-weight food items such as salads does not require such a strong pan, so a lighter gauge foil pan will do the job adequately.

Steam Table Pan Sizes

Apart from a few negligible variances, all steam table foil pan sizes are universal among US aluminum foil manufacturers. There are 3 size categories of steam table pans: Full-Size, Half-Size, and Third-Size.

Half-Size Pans

These measure 12-3/4" length by 10-3/8" width. The most common half-size pans are made with 40 gauge heavy duty aluminum, full curl rim, with the exception of the half-size extra deep pan which is even stronger at 50 gauge. (A stronger 45 gauge version of the half-size deep is also available).

Half-Size Pans (4 Depths) 12-3/4" x 10-3/8" (Packed 100 pans per case)

* Half-Size Shallow: 1-11/16" Vertical Depth
* Half-Size Medium: 2-3/16" Vertical Depth
* Half-Size Deep: 2-9/16" Vertical Depth
* Half-Size Extra Deep: 4-3/16" Vertical Depth

Uses: Light-medium volume catering, smaller party portions, bulk food transport, barbecues, broiling, baking, casseroles, pastries, cooking.

Full-Size Pans

These measure 20-3/4" length by 12-13/16" width and vary in depth. Generally, these are made with 65 gauge heavy duty aluminum, full curl rim. These will not bend or crush easily. Economy gauge pans are 55 and 60 gauge, also known as cheater gauge. These are best used for light duty applications and we generally do not recommend them for commercial food service use. And if you need even stronger support, 70 gauge extra heavy duty pans in the Full-Size Deep and Full-Size Medium are available.

Full Size Pans (3 Depths) 20-3/4" x 12-13/16" (Packed 50 pans per case)

* Full Size Shallow: 1-11/16" Vertical Depth
* Full Size Medium: 2-3/16" Vertical Depth
* Full Size Deep: 3-3/8" Vertical Depth

Uses: Full-service volume catering, party pan portions, heavy bulk food transport, broiling, barbecues, baking, cooking.

Third-Size Pans

The third-size deep steam pan is the exact same pan as the 5LB loaf/bread pan. These are available in cases of 100 and 200.

Uses: Loaf/bread pans, pound cakes, broiling, barbecues, cooking, baking

Steam Pan Lids

Matching foil lids are available for all steam foil pans. Lids will universally fit their respective size pans, including pans made by various US manufacturers. In addition to foil lids, clear OPS dome lids are available for half-size pans.

Foil Pan Tips

Did you know foil pans can be refrigerated or frozen, and they can go straight into the oven? This is one main reason they are the top choice for disposable food transport within the food service industry. However, there are a few things you can do to get the most out of your steam tables.

* Always Support The Bottom! Keep in mind that aluminum containers will bend under weight, and holding a pan by the edges when full of food is something you should try to avoid. Use at least one hand under the pan for support whenever transporting food.
* Use matching foil lids. These serve several purposes. They cover the food and keep food hot (steaming!). They help eliminate spills. They also provide significant added support once they crimp fully around the pan.
* With liquid foods, use plastic cling wrap to cover the pan, then crimp the foil pan lid over the top. This will significantly reduce leakage and spills.
* Aluminum pans are recyclable. Help the environment by recycling your foil products whenever possible.

Copyright Pactogo, Inc. 2010. All Rights Reserved

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Pactogo.com Steam Table Foil Pans

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Key Considerations in Choosing an Aluminum Awnings

2010-07-27T13:24:00.000-07:00

Aluminum awnings have long been popular all across the world, as much for their reasonable cost as their unusual longevity. One can safely assume that these type of awnings can last for around four decades, and that is long enough by most standards. In addition, they are easy to maintain, are very lightweight and therefore easy to install, and afford shade and year long protection to both the interior of your homes as well as the window fittings themselves.

All round winners, all said and done.

Most modern firms offer aluminum awnings in various styles, including single pillar fitments and going up until retractable, automated awnings. Blue Star Group, for example, offers a single pillar umbrella style awning made of aluminum that is good enough for a reasonable sized door fixture.

At the other end of the range, Sunsetter Awnings have a wide range of aluminum awnings that are fully motorized, and operated by remote control. These, because they are made mostly of aluminum, are relatively cheap, long lasting and easy to maintain. The span measures as much as 18 feet, while models as small as 11 feet in length are also available. Do consider the Pro Motorized Awning by Sunsetter if you are in the market for an aluminum awning that is of good quality and has proven to be long lasting.

Another firm with a reasonable wide range of products is Ballew's, who make a reasonably wide range of step-down awnings to choose from. Offering fourteen different colour schemes and a colour coordinated range of aluminum products to choose from, Ballew's awnings can be customized to suit your range of needs and specifications.

Awnings constructed from aluminum make a lot of sense in regions where a fabric awning does not provide the requisite strength required to keep out the elements, such as in the case of heavy snow. While these are naturally more expensive when compared to regular awnings, aluminum awnings also have the benefit of unparalleled sturdiness, and unusual longevity.

When choosing your awning, take care to ensure that the sheeting is done with good quality metal. A poorly constructed aluminum awning can lead to leaks and structural instability. This can not only cause major inconveniences, but can also be a major safety hazard.

If chosen well though, these aluminum awnings can be a very welcome addition to the structure of your house, and a very safe source of protection from the elements.

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Aluminum Manufacturers

2010-07-27T13:23:00.000-07:00

Aluminum Products Are Abundant - Aluminum is one of the sturdiest and easily found metals. It's versatile and can be used in various areas such as home, industry and transport. It is used often in our daily lives. It is also known for its strength, corrosion resistance, durability, and light weight. It can also be recycled. With aluminum being used in so many products, there are many aluminum manufacturers to choose from.

Search Directories and Manufacturer Lists Online - One of the most common processes for finding manufacturers is to look through a directory and find lists. There are literally tens of thousands of manufacturers to choose from, especially if you are open to working with a foreign company. It can be a long process of sorting through companies. Start by narrowing down your list of companies by looking at the types of aluminum products the manufacturers already have experience making. Try to contact those companies first.

Obtain Multiple Quotes - Don't forget to ask about pricing based on using different materials than you had originally planned. Also, find out if you can get a lower price per product by increasing the number of products or parts you order. Make sure that you obtain at least 3 quotes before you commit to working with a certain company.

Search Forums & Manufacturing Related Blogs - See what companies other people are using and see what others have said about their service, prices and products. When you do find a company that you are interested in using, do a search on their company name and see what others say about them. Reading through comments on manufacturing related forums can help you get more company name suggestions.

Make sure once you have chosen a company that you have found online, that you proceed cautiously, start small, with samples and then a small order of your product, especially if dealing with a foreign manufacturer. Build trust over time to increase your order size.

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Aluminum, the Modern Metal

2010-07-27T13:22:00.000-07:00

Aluminum is one of the modern worlds more versatile materials. It is used in everything from soda cans to airliners. Aluminum can be molded, extruded, machined, cast, shaped and formed into such a variety of things that it is a wonder of modern metallurgical art. It was only during the 1880's that a process was developed that made the widespread use of aluminum possible. Before the development of this process aluminum as a metal was more valuable than gold in it's pure form.

Elementally speaking, aluminum has an atomic weight of 13 and is a member of the boron group of chemical elements. In its metal form it has a melting point of 660 degrees centigrade. Aluminum is the most abundant metal in the earth's crust. However it never occurs as a metal in nature because it is chemically too reactive. It is found as a compound in over 270 different minerals. The chief of these minerals being bauxite.

The ancients used alum, which most modern sources refer to as alumina from which aluminum comes from, as a astringent and a mordant for dyes. The scientist Wohler is generally credited with first isolating the metal in 1827. Alumina was used in the textile industry during the 1800's as a mordant. It was through the discovery of a process for separating purer forms of alumina that the modern aluminum industry was born.

The Bayer process has changed very little since it was first used in 1887 and is still the chief method for separating aluminum from bauxite. The bauxite is washed in a caustic solution which separates the alumina bearing ores from the oxides and other material in the bauxite. Through the use of heat, pressure, and chemical processes, the alumina bearing ore is extracted and purified. Ultimately the ore is refined into aluminum which is used in its metal form by much of the world.

By itself aluminum is not a strong metal, however when alloyed with other metals such as copper, magnesium, manganese, silicone, and other elements, it develops very useful characteristics such as corrosion resistance, lightweight, and tensile strength. Aluminum is also insoluble in alcohol though it is be soluble in water in certain chemical forms.

In its alloyed form it has about a third of the density and stiffness of steel, which makes it useful as a structural material. Aluminum has replaced steel as the armor of choice for modern warships. It is also used as armor sheeting on many modern vehicles, due to it's lightweight.

We are most familiar with aluminum as a metal. Its properties as a metal are highly desirable. It is corrosion resistant, nonmagnetic and non-sparking. When tempered and alloyed with the proper element, such as copper or manganese, it has enough tensile strength to be useful in many applications as a light yet durable structural material. Aluminum is also useful in the chemical industry, as an ingredient in explosives and other chemical processes. Aluminum retains its high reflectivity when powdered making it an important component in paints and coatings.

Aluminium Alloy

Aluminum is used extensively in our daily lives. The aerospace industry would be at a standstill without aluminum which makes up the material in most aircraft. The automotive industry also uses aluminum in engines, car frames, wheels and other parts of the vehicles we drive. Aluminum is in our kitchens as pots, pans, aluminum foil and various cooking utensils. Aluminum is also used in power transmission lines. Though not as conductive as copper it's lightweight makes it ideal for power lines.

Aluminium Sheet

We live in what could be called the aluminum age, for it is the most commonly used metal in our daily lives, and is all around us in the cars we drive, the planes we fly in, the cans of soda we drink. Aluminum products are in all facets of our lives. There would be no space program without aluminum, which forms the major components of the International Space Station and space shuttle.

One of the advantages of aluminum is that it is 100 percent recyclable. All the various products made of aluminum can be melted down and reused to make more products, which when their usefulness is over can in their turn be recycled. From the soda can to the car engine, aluminum is a reusable resource.

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Lighter cars, more efficiency, aluminum makers say

2009-10-23T03:49:00.001-07:00

NEW YORK (Reuters) - If automakers use more aluminum and less steel in hybrid and electric-powered vehicles, they could cut the cost to consumers by $3,000 per vehicle, an aluminum industry-backed report says.

"As automakers gear up for a new generation of plug-in electric vehicles, the high cost of battery power remains a barrier," said Michael Bull, director of Automotive Technology for aluminum products maker Novelis, Inc.

"By upgrading from traditional steel to an advanced aluminum body structure, the vehicle's stored energy requirements can be cut by about 10 percent, which could save up to $3,000 per vehicle since less power and energy is required to move the lighter vehicle," Bull said in remarks to be given on Tuesday at the Center for Automotive Research's (CAR) "Business of Plugging In" conference in Detroit.

Bull, who was representing the Aluminum Association at the conference, told Reuters in an interview on Monday that currently about 10 percent of a vehicle body is constructed of aluminum, with the rest made of steel. The average weight is between 3,900 and 4,100 pounds.

There was universal acknowledgment, he said, that making cars and trucks lighter would increase their fuel efficiency and cut costs by reducing the battery energy requirements.

"The solution lies in lowering the vehicle's weight with aluminum as part of a holistic approach to also include advanced powertrains and batteries, enhanced thermal management, improved aerodynamics, and reduced rolling resistance," Bull said.

The report, by the Aluminum Association and Ricardo, a technical research consultancy, said making lighter vehicles, with more aluminum, would increase the driving range.

"Reduce the mass of the vehicle 20 percent, go 20 percent farther," it said. "As with conventional vehicles, the lighter vehicles have faster accelerations."

It cited Tesla Motors' Roadster, Fisker Automotive's luxury vehicle and Bright Automotive's van, which all use lightweight aluminum platforms for their vehicles.

"Many of the current hybrid vehicles are progressively adding lower weight components to improve the overall vehicle performance," said the report, financed by aluminum producers Alcoa Inc (AA.N) Hindalco Industries' (HALC.BO) Novelis, Rio Tinto's (RIO.L) Alcan Inc, Kaiser Aluminum Corp (KALU.O) and others.

Aluminum is making "steady penetration" into the auto market, "and if we could get to a point where 10 percent of vehicles are all aluminum we'd be happy," Bull told Reuters.

Misumi Adds New Products to Its Comprehensive Lines of Timing Pulleys, Belts, Idlers and Related Parts

2009-10-23T03:48:00.000-07:00

Expanded Selection of Styles and Configuration Options Provides Machine and Motion System Designers With More Choices Than Ever Before SCHAUMBURG, Ill.--(Business Wire)-- Misumi USA, Inc., a subsidiary of Misumi Corporation, part of Misumi Group, Inc. (Tokyo:9962) announces the expansion of product offerings across two of its mechanical component categories: Timing Pulleys, Belts and Mechanical Locks; and Pulleys for Round and Flat Belts, Idlers and Flat Belts. Timing pulleys, timing belts and related products are essential to the design and assembly of rugged automated machinery and conveyor systems. The new product lines significantly expand Misumi`s wide selection of components for plant automation, providing customers with the broadest range of options in the industry today. By category, Misumi`s new product additions include: Timing Pulleys, Belts and Mechanical Locks * High Torque Timing Pulleys − S14M Type * Non-Backlash Timing Pulleys − S8M Type; feature significantly lower backlash volume than conventional pulleys * Keyless Timing Pulleys − H and L Types, and T5 and T10 Types, all with mechanical lock * Many of S3M, S5M and S8M pulleys now available with inch bores * Keyless High Torque Timing Pulleys − S3M, S5M and S8M Types, all with mechanical lock * Flanged Idlers with Teeth − AT5, AT 10 Types * Timing Belts with Attachments − T5 and T10 Types; attachments are fusion bonded to the backside of the timing belt to enable constant pitch conveyance of various work pieces. Available with 1, 2 holes or without holes. * Long Timing Belts − Joint machining; number of teeth configurable; suitable for long span synchronous conveyance. * Long Timing Belts − Joint machining; number of teeth configurable; low friction canvas upholstered backside type suitable for accumulation conveyance. * Timing Belt Guides − Prevent belts from flexure and wandering during conveyance. * Metal Fittings (Clamps) for Timing Belts Pulleys for Round and Flat Belts, Idlers, Flat Belts * Pulleys for Flat Belts with Urethane − features baked-on urethane surface to provide improved friction resistance over conventional aluminum products * Pulleys for Round Belts − Set Screw and Clamping Types * Pulleys for Flat Belts − Crown, Crosspiece Groove (straight or crown) Types * Idlers for Flat Belts − Straight, Crown and Straight Crosspiece Groove Types More detailed information about all of these new products, including pricing, technical data and delivery times, can be found in the Misumi catalog and on the website. www.misumi-ec.com/eusaen/mech/. About MISUMI USA, Inc. Located in Schaumburg, Illinois, MISUMI USA, Inc. was established in 1988 as a Subsidiary of Misumi Corporation, a part of the Misumi Group (TOKYO: 9962). MISUMI USA, Inc. is a leading supplier of fixed and configurable components such as single-axis actuators, linear shafts, aluminum extrusions, linear guides, XY stages and other components for factory automation and various machine builds. For a complete list of available components, please visit www.misumiusa.com. COMPANY CONTACT Misumi USA, Inc. Patrick J. Esposito, 847-843-9105 Marketing Manager Fax: 847-592-5922 pesposito@misumiusa.com or AGENCY CONTACT Outlook Marketing Services, Inc. Christa Carroll, 630-922-6995 christa@outlookmarketingsrv.com Copyright Business Wire 2009

Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys Casting Problems

2009-10-23T03:46:00.000-07:00

Aluminum castings have played an integral role in the growth of the aluminum industry since its inception in the late 19th century. The first commercial aluminum products were castings, such as cooking utensils and decorative parts, which exploited the novelty and utility of the new metal. Those early applications rapidly expanded to address the requirements of a wide range of engineering specifications.

Alloy development and characterization of physical and mechanical characteristics provided the basis for new product development through the decades that followed. Casting processes were developed to extend the capabilities of foundries in new commercial and technical applications. The technology of molten metal processing, solidification, and property development has been advanced to assist the foundry man with the means of economical and reliable production of parts that consistently meet specified requirements.

Today, aluminum alloy castings are produced in hundreds of compositions by all commercial casting processes, including green sand, dry sand, composite mold, plaster mold, investment casting, permanent mold, counter-gravity tow-pressure casting, and pressure die casting.

Alloys can also be divided into two groups: those most suitable for gravity casting by any process and those used in pressure die casting. A finer distinction is made between alloys suitable for permanent mold application and those for other gravity processes.

Material constraints that formerly limited the design engineer’s alloy choice once a casting process had been selected are increasingly being blurred by advances in foundry technique. In the same way, process selection is also less restricted today. For example, many alloys thought to be unusable in permanent molds because of casting characteristics are in production by that process.

Melting and Metal Treatment

Aluminum and aluminum alloys can be melted in a variety of ways. Coreless and channel induction furnaces, crucible and open-hearth reverberatory furnaces fired by natural gas or fuel oil, and electric resistance and electric radiation furnaces are all in routine use. The nature of the furnace charge is as varied and important as the choice of furnace type for metal casting operations. The furnace charge may range from prealloyed ingot of high quality to charges made up exclusively from low-grade scrap.

Even under optimum melting and melt-holding conditions, molten aluminum is susceptible to three types of degradation:

With time at temperature, adsorption of hydrogen results in increased dissolved hydrogen content up to an equilibrium value for the specific composition and temperature
With time at temperature, oxidation of the melt occurs; in alloys containing magnesium, oxidation losses and the formation of complex oxides may not be self-limiting
Transient elements characterized by low vapor pressure and high reactivity are reduced as a function of time at temperature; magnesium, sodium, calcium, and strontium, upon which mechanical properties directly or indirectly rely, are examples of elements that display transient characteristics.

Turbulence or agitation of the melt and increased holding temperature significantly increase the rate of hydrogen solution, oxidation, and transient element loss. The mechanical properties of aluminum alloys depend on casting soundness, which is strongly influenced by hydrogen porosity and entrained nonmetallic inclusions.

Hydrogen influence on aluminum

Hydrogen is the only gas that is appreciably soluble in aluminum and its alloys. Its solubility varies directly with temperature and the square root of pressure. During the cooling and solidification of molten aluminum, dissolved hydrogen in excess of the extremely low solid solubility may precipitate in molecular form, resulting in the formation of primary and/or secondary voids.

Drossing fluxes are designed to promote separation of the aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) dross layer that forms on the surface of the melt from the molten metal. Drosses and liquid or solid metal are usually intermingled in the dross layer. The drossing fluxes are designed to react with Al₂O₃ in the slag or dross layer and to recover metal. The fluorides wet and dissolve thin oxide films according to the general reaction.

Hydrogen Sources. There are numerous sources of hydrogen in aluminum. Moisture in the atmosphere dissociates at the molten metal surface, offering a concentration of atomic hydrogen capable of diffusing into the melt. The barrier oxide of aluminum resists hydrogen solution by this mechanism, but disturbances of the melt surface that break the oxide barrier result in rapid hydrogen dissolution. Alloying elements, especially magnesium, may also affect hydrogen absorption by forming oxidation reaction products that offer reduced resistance to the diffusion of hydrogen into the melt and by altering liquid solubility.

Hydrogen Porosity. Two types or forms of hydrogen porosity may occur in cast aluminum. Of greater importance is inter-dendritic porosity, which is encountered when hydrogen contents are sufficiently high that hydrogen rejected at the solidification front results in solution pressures above atmospheric. Secondary (micron-size) porosity occurs when dissolved hydrogen contents are low, and void formation is characteristically subcritical.

Finely distributed hydrogen porosity may not always be undesirable. Hydrogen precipitation may alter the form and distribution of shrinkage porosity in poorly fed parts or part sections. Shrinkage is generally more harmful to casting properties. In isolated cases, hydrogen may actually be intentionally introduced and controlled in specific concentrations compatible with the application requirements of the casting in order to promote superficial soundness.

Hydrogen in Solid Solution. The disposition of hydrogen in a solidified structure depends on the dissolved hydrogen level and the conditions under which solidification occurs. Because the presence of hydrogen porosity is a result of diffusion-controlled nucleation and growth, decreasing the hydrogen concentration and increasing the rate of solidification act to suppress void formation and growth. For this reason, castings made in expendable mold processes are more susceptible to hydrogen-related defects than parts produced by permanent mold or pressure die casting.

Hydrogen Removal. Dissolved hydrogen levels can be reduced by a number of methods, the most important of which is fluxing with dry, chemically pure nitrogen, argon, chlorine, and freon. Compounds such as hexachloroethane are in common use; these compounds dissociate at molten metal temperatures to provide the generation of fluxing gas.

Gas fluxing reduces the dissolved hydrogen content of molten aluminum by partial pressure diffusion. The use of reactive gases such as chlorine improves the rate of degassing by altering the gas/metal interface to improve diffusion kinetics. Holding the melt undisturbed for long periods of time at or near the liquidus also reduces hydrogen content to a level no greater than that defined for the alloy as the temperature-dependent liquid solubility.

Kaiser Aluminum Introduces Energy Surcharge

2008-10-02T21:27:00.003-07:00

* Surcharge Effective on All New Orders for Fabricated Products Beginning July 1

* Commodity Prices for Natural Gas and Diesel Fuel Have Increased 60 Percent over 2007 Averages

* Tools for Customers to Track Surcharge Available on Kaiser Aluminum's Web Site

FOOTHILL RANCH, Calif. -- Kaiser Aluminum (NASDAQ:KALU) today announced that beginning July 1 it will incorporate surcharges for all new orders of fabricated aluminum products. The decision is based on an effort to reduce exposure to rising costs for natural gas, electricity and diesel fuel. "These surcharges are essential to mitigate the extraordinary rise in costs related to energy that we have been absorbing for several years," said Jack A. Hockema, president, chairman and CEO of Kaiser Aluminum. "Commodity prices for natural gas and diesel fuel leapt roughly 60 percent in May compared to the 2007 average. These energy prices are spiraling and highly volatile, so we've elected to introduce a surcharge as the most transparent method to recover these costs."

The surcharges are based on a calculation tied to indices provided by the U.S. Department of Energy and will be updated on a monthly basis. Customers can view the formulas for calculating surcharges on the Kaiser Aluminum Web site at www.kaiseraluminum.com. Up-to-date information on how these surcharges impact specific products will also be included on the site.

"We're currently evaluating methods to address the significant increases in the costs of alloying materials, such as magnesium and copper," Hockema added. "We also continue our aggressive pursuit of cost reduction initiatives designed to offset other inflationary cost pressures."

Kaiser Aluminum, headquartered in Foothill Ranch, Calif., is a leading producer of fabricated aluminum products, serving customers worldwide with highly-engineered solutions for aerospace and high-strength, general engineering, and custom automotive and industrial applications. The company's North American facilities annually produce more than 500 million pounds of value-added sheet, plate, extrusions, forgings, rod, bar and tube products, adhering to traditions of quality, innovation and service that have been key components of our culture since the company was founded in 1946. The company's stock is included in the Russell 2000[R] index. For more information, please visit www.kaiseraluminum.com.

F-1097

Certain statements in this release relate to future events and expectations and, as a result, constitute forward-looking statements involving known and unknown risks and uncertainties that may cause actual results, performance or achievements of the company to be different from those expressed or implied in the forward-looking statements. Important factors that could cause actual results to differ materially from those in the forward-looking statements include: (a) the effectiveness of management's strategies and decisions; (b) the ability of the company to effectively recover higher costs; (c) the company's ability to reduce costs to mitigate inflationary pressure; (d) adverse changes in economic or aluminum industry conditions generally; (e) adverse changes in the markets served by the company, including the aerospace, defense, general engineering, automotive, distribution and other markets; (f) the company's ability to leverage its technologies and the Kaiser Production System methodology; and (g) the other risk factors summarized in the company's Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2007 and other reports filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission.

COPYRIGHT 2008 Business Wire
COPYRIGHT 2008 Gale, Cengage Learning

Century Aluminum Unwinds Primary Aluminum Financial Forward Sales Contracts

2008-10-02T21:27:00.002-07:00

Century Aluminum Company (NASDAQ: CENX) announced today an agreement with Glencore to unwind all of its primary aluminum financial forward sales contracts. The contracts have been settled for a total value of $978.4 million in a new class of non-voting convertible preferred stock and $730.2 million in cash. After the payment for the June 2008 volumes (to be made in mid July per the previously existing terms), Century will have no further obligations under the forward contracts.

"We are pleased to have reached this agreement," said Logan W. Kruger, Century's President and Chief Executive Officer. "Entering into the fixed price forward financial sales contracts was the appropriate strategy for Century at the time they were put in place. Today, our plants in Iceland and the U.S. enjoy a strong competitive position. We see favorable fundamentals for the global primary aluminum market and believe our shareholders will benefit from our ability to realize market pricing on our entire production capacity. We have an attractive pipeline of growth opportunities which can be funded with the additional cash flow we will unlock through this transaction. We are very pleased with Glencore's continuing support; by accepting the preferred stock and its terms, they have reaffirmed their position as a long-term shareholder."

Transaction Structure

As consideration for the cancellation of the forward financial sales contracts, which were entered into in November 2004 and June 2005, Century has issued to Glencore 160,000 shares of a new class of convertible preferred stock which pays no dividend unless Century were to pay a dividend on its common stock. The preferred stock is convertible into Century's common stock at a conversion ratio of 1:100, thereby representing 16,000,000 underlying shares of common stock. The preferred stock carries no general voting rights, but in other principal respects shares the rights and features of Century's common stock. As such, the preferred stock will be accounted for as a common stock equivalent in the calculation of diluted shares outstanding. The remaining portion of the transaction consideration has been paid with $225.0 million of Century's cash on hand and through a $505.2 million deferred settlement agreement with Glencore. This deferred settlement agreement carries an interest rate of LIBOR plus 2.50% on outstanding amounts and requires monthly repayments from September 2008 through December 2009, or earlier without penalty at Century's option.

The agreement restricts the sale or transfer of the preferred stock. The preferred stock is generally convertible into common stock only upon Glencore exercising its right to demand that Century register an equivalent number of underlying common shares and conduct, on Glencore's behalf, an underwritten common stock offering. The registration rights are limited by provisions typical in such agreements. The agreement also restricts Glencore's ability to purchase additional shares of Century's common stock or to propose certain corporate transactions for a limited period of time.

Century Aluminum Company owns primary aluminum capacity in the United States and Iceland, as well as an interest in alumina and bauxite assets in the United States and Jamaica. Century's corporate offices are located in Monterey, California.

Century Aluminum will hold a conference call today to discuss this announcement at 10:30 a.m. Eastern. To listen to the conference call and to view related presentation materials, go to http://investor.shareholder.com/cenx/events.cfm and click on the conference call link.

Cautionary Statement

This press release may contain "forward-looking statements" within the meaning of U.S. federal securities laws. The company has based its forward-looking statements on current expectations and projections about the future; however, these statements are subject to risks, uncertainties and assumptions, any of which could cause the company's actual results to differ materially from those expressed in its forward-looking statements. More information about these risks, uncertainties and assumptions can be found in the risk factors and forward-looking statements cautionary language contained in the company's Annual Report on Form 10-K and in other filings made with the Securities and Exchange Commission. The company does not undertake, and specifically disclaims, any obligation to revise any forward-looking statements to reflect the occurrence of anticipated or unanticipated events or circumstances after the date such forward-looking statements are made.

Certified Advisors for the First North market of the OMX Nordic Exchange Iceland hf. for Global Depositary Receipts in Iceland:

Helga Gunnarsdottir, Director-Corporate Finance, Landsbanki Islands hf.

Olafur Finsen, Senior Legal Advisor-Corporate Finance, Landsbanki Islands hf.

Contacts: Mike Dildine (media) 831-642-9364 Shelly Lair (investors) 831-642-9357

Artistry in aluminum

2008-10-02T21:27:00.001-07:00

Alumagrips offers artistry in aluminum to create a truly custom, serviceable, and affordable grip for your 191] pistol. They combine the durability and good looks of light weight metal finished to perfection. The manufacturing process is so exacting that grips in any style offered will add a unique, high quality look to any 1911 pistol, full size, compact, ambidextrous, mug-well, or both. Besides the pleasing aesthetics, the high grade aluminum is finished to perfection for appearance and fit and will stand up to heavy duty use fur years to come. Visit USA made Alumagrips at: www.alumagrips.com.

Aluminum Venetian Blinds-The Right Thing for your Windows

2008-09-25T22:18:00.001-07:00

Enough of your old window blinds. Make way for the stylish aluminum Venetian blinds.

If you really want durability in your window coverings, aluminum Venetian blinds is the one that will suit it best. Aluminum blinds will give you the special ambiance you always desire. For having aluminum Venetian blinds in every room, the kitchen, in the receiving area of your home, you can also color coordinate the blinds in every decoration you want.

Aluminum Venetian blinds are manufactured to the fact that people always wanted something that will surely last. In deciding to buy aluminum Venetian blinds, you can choose for different types whether you like vertical or mini blinds. Specifically, aluminum Venetian blinds look good if you put in a formal dining area.

Although aluminum Venetian blinds are more expensive than vinyl blinds, it is much cheaper than wood blinds. If you prefer an aluminum mini blind, you can have it with 1 inch slat or much more with slats 2 to 3 inches wide. If you’re shopping for your aluminum Venetian blinds, there are lots of colors to choose from as well as to a number of different levels of confidentiality.

If you’d preferred to reduce the light coming from the outside, then you can have your aluminum Venetian blinds that will only allow reduced light to enter while in blocking the glow. Certainly, you can have your styled aluminum blinds that can provide you complete privacy when lowered.

Worrying your aluminum Venetian blinds will not fit to some of your specialty cut windows is not a problem anymore. You can now order aluminum blinds to some reputable dealers that will fit your cornered, arched, or even rounded windows. By using the standard cord to lower and raise the aluminum blind, you can opt to have battery operated feature to the blind. In having this kind of wireless feature, installing it is quite easy. Relatively, the motor is silent in operation, yet it’s powerful. The 6 channel control can be operated to at least 6 aluminum blinds as long the distance is within 50 feet.

Also, aluminum blinds can offer energy efficiency. Window blinds with this kind of action can resist every heat loss through the window in time of cold seasons. If you like to cover your large window, aluminum blinds with larger slats are recommended. In keeping you preferred color of the aluminum blinds, there are lines that include metallic, solids, and matte, which can result to low gloss finish.

Installing what you think is the best type of aluminum blind for your home will certainly make the right decoration.

This content is provided by Low Jeremy and may be used only in its entirety with all links included. For more info on Blinds, please visit blinds.articlekeep.com

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Low_Jeremy

Aluminum is a Great Material for Railings

2008-09-25T22:18:00.000-07:00

Aluminum has been used for a number of years in construction and for other uses when a lightweight but strong solution was sought. Alloys manufactured from aluminum are used in aircraft, furniture, clothing and many other items. Aluminum's strength to weight ratio is what makes it so attractive for so many uses. Steel is stronger, but is much heavier and so steel of the same weight or thickness of aluminum does not offer the same strength. Aluminum also lasts a long time because it does not easily corrode.

Aluminum as a material for railings can be used in many ways.

Anodized aluminum: Corrosion of aluminum is even further delayed by putting a thin coating on the surface of the aluminum. This prevents the aluminum from oxidizing, preventing corrosion. Strengthened: Aluminum can be further strengthened by the insertion of wood blocks into the aluminum at critical points, so that the aluminum is even stronger. Coated: A powder coating can be applied to aluminum by means of new painting techniques. Through the addition of these powder coatings, plain old silver aluminum can now be available in beautiful, bright new colors. PVC: PVC can be attached to fully formed aluminum after it is manufactured. This can serve two purposes. It can further protect the aluminum and it can add a new dimension to the design and color of the aluminum.

Aluminum is one of the easiest of materials to work with and install, so it is no surprise that manufacturers have started developing uses for aluminum in railings. Vertical aluminum posts are easily fixed into the bottom posts of a railing, allowing for speed of installation. Even the homeowner do-it-yourselfer is happy to be able to save time with an easy method such as this. Posts of other materials such as PVC or CPVC can also be fixed into the aluminum bottom posts. In addition to aluminum, aluminum alloys are being used more and more in railings because of the extra longevity they give to the railings. These alloy processes give aluminum an even greater strength to weight ratio and protect it further against corrosion.

Andrew Caxton contributes adding long articles on deck and balcony for http://www.deck-porch-railings.com. Find more publications about aluminum railings at his website.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Andrew_Caxton

Aluminum Weather Vanes

2008-08-28T22:37:00.002-07:00

Aluminum weather vanes are made in America and have gained popularity all over the world for their versatility. Use of cast aluminum has been one of the latest additions to materials used to build weather vanes, in order to provide a longer life and enhanced look.

Cast Aluminum weather vanes usually come with lifetime guarantee offers from manufactures. They are becoming popular due to their durability. Rust-free feature of cast Aluminum helps in ensuring its durability and maintaining physical features of these weather vanes. Aluminum weather vanes can be polished and painted to achieve appearance of wrought iron. Since aluminum is rust free, it increases its longevity and resistance to the elements. Customers may choose to customize their preferences and order vanes as per their choice.

A variety of gold, bronze, rust, verdigris and multi-colored paint finishings can be found in these aluminum weather vanes. They are adorned with decorative mounting brackets, gold globes and east-west-north-south directionals apart from indicating arrows. Some models of hand-finished Aluminum weather vanes may be available in two dimensional looks and painted in natural wood colors.

Manufactured by various American Companies, Aluminum weather vanes are shipped all over US and rest of the world. Shipping charges, however, vary according to location within and outside America. Delivery period is also variable depending on these locations and company policies.

Aluminum weather vane collections can be found online. These products are categorized according to their ornamentation types. Actual photographs of the product are accompanied by brief description of each product design and texture details. Queries and information about aluminum weather vanes are satisfied by most online sellers to enhance customer satisfaction. Easy to use installation and assembly guides are also provided with purchase of most weather vanes. Customers may explore the wide range of selection before choosing an appropriate weather vane to decorate their homes. However, it is important to check and compare rates and design of the vanes before making a purchase.

Weather Vanes provides detailed information on Weather Vanes, Copper Weather Vanes, Wrought Iron Weather Vanes, Antique Weather Vanes and more. Weather Vanes is affiliated with How To Make Wind Chimes.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Ross_Bainbridge

The Advantage of Aluminum Railings

2008-08-28T22:37:00.001-07:00

Aluminum railings offer many benefits over other materials that are used for railings. You will find that there are many different ways that aluminum can be used for railings and that aluminum can be mixed with other materials, which will give you added benefits.

The Lighter Side Of Aluminum Railings

Aluminum has been used for many years in railings because it is a lightweight metal that is easy to use and work. Aluminum has been used for many other purposed as well, including in the aviation in industry. Aluminum is well known for its resistance to corrosion, which makes it an ideal material choice for many different purposes.

Aluminum Railings

There are many different additions that can be made to aluminum to help make it stronger and more durable. Here are a few:

1. Anodized Aluminum: If you are worried about corrosion, then you will want to get aluminum that is anodized. This thing coating on the aluminum will help prevent oxidation, which is the beginning of aluminum become corroded.

2. Wooden Inserts: To strengthen aluminum, wooden blocks are sometimes put into the opening of the forms of aluminum. This will give strength, but not so much that it is heavy and difficult to work with.

3. Powder Coated Aluminum: To increase visual appeal, a new painting technique is being used called powder coating. This makes the railings look even more beautiful and pleasing to the eye.

4. PVC Coated Aluminum: After the aluminum has been formed into your railings, they can be coating with PVC. This helps the railings to last much longer and it keeps them looking beautiful for a long time.

Easy To Install

Manufacturers keep trying to make it easier to install aluminum railings. Bottom posts are made that allow the vertical aluminum posts to be fixed help to speed up the construction and installation process. Homeowners who enjoy doing home improvement projects will find that this upgrade is very helpful and will help cut your time needed to do this project. This kind of railing is normally found in CPVC, PVC, or other manmade materials.

Manufacturers are also finding that aluminum alloys will help make the railings last longer. This mixing of aluminum with other metals can help increase the resistance to corrosion and can help add to the strength to weight ratio.

Whichever aluminum railing that you choose, you are sure to find that there are many different designs. This will enable you to find the one that best fits your functional needs and your aesthetic needs.

Andrew Caxton is the author and editor of many deck and balcony articles and newsletters published at http://www.deck-porch-railings.com . Find more publications about aluminum railings at his website.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Andrew_Caxton

Aluminum is a Great Material for Railings

2008-08-28T22:37:00.000-07:00

What Aluminum Wiring Looks Like

2008-08-22T03:04:00.002-07:00

While training a home inspector I saw an electrical contractor's apprentice look right at a panel wired with single strand aluminum wiring and not even notice it was there.

Why?

He did not think to look for aluminum single strand wire because the home was "too new" to have single strand aluminum wiring. Although he was correct about the age of the home (it was built long after aluminum wiring was commonly used) he missed a major safety defect that is very expensive to cure. Someone must have found an old coil or two around when the addition was added.

What does aluminum wiring look like?
How would most home owner's or Realtors know the home had aluminum wiring?

If the home has BX (metal exterior wiring) it does not have aluminum wiring. I have never seen aluminum wiring in BX and have never heard of it being made. There is a tin coated copper wire in BX that was very common. It is NOT a hazard at all.

If the home has Romex wire (plastic or cloth covered) look at the writing on the wire. If it says CU or copper it is not aluminum. If it says AL or aluminum it is aluminum.

Removing electric panel covers is NOT a job for those who do not know how to do it. There is enough power inside the average electric panel to kill you and a few others. If you are in doubt hire and pay for a professional to determine the type wire in a home, it is well worth it.

Michael Del Greco is President of Accurate Inspections, Inc., a home inspection business.

He has been a home inspector since 1993 and prior to that spent seven years as a construction project manager.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Michael_Del_Greco

11 Reasons To Consider an Aluminum Shipping Case

2008-08-22T03:04:00.001-07:00

1) Aluminum is light and highly robust: The density of aluminum is only 2,6 to 2,8 g/cm3. This is only approx. 1/3rd of the density of steel. Despite its low weight aluminum is very strong.

2) Aluminum is impermeable to moisture: Even under extremely long storage conditions moisture cannot diffuse through the material. Welding allows an aluminum case to be constructed so that it is impermeable to moisture vapour.

3) Aluminum is not sensitive to impact and is very strong: Although the surface may be dented as a result of impact, the impact energy is however absorbed by the deformation.

4) Aluminum is magnetically neutral: Aluminum is free of ferromagnetism. This material characteristic can be of great significance for certain application areas.

5) Aluminum is not even sensitive to extreme temperature fluctuations: In the temperature range -150 to +150 °C the material characteristics remain constant.

6) Aluminum is fully recyclable: Old aluminum can be melted down and reused – a decisive contribution towards relieving pressure on waste disposal and environmental protection.

7) Aluminum is corrosion resistant and protects itself: On contact with oxygen the surface becomes covered with an oxide layer and this layer is immediately renewed if damage occurs.

8) Aluminum is resistant to UV radiation: Long storage periods and usage under exposure to UV-radiation have no influence on this material.

9) Aluminum is hygienic: The smooth surface is easy to clean and odour-neutral. Aluminum cases are outstandingly well suited for areas with demanding specifications in relation to hygiene.

10) Aluminum can be machined in a number of different ways: All the most widely used machining processes – welding, moulding etc. can be used in conjunction with aluminum and can be carried out a great deal more efficiently than is the case with other materials.

11) Aluminum is conductive of electricity: Aluminum is a good conductor of electricity and heat, an advantage e.g. in housings for electronic installations.

Shipping Cases Now is a US distributor of this high quality German made series of shipping containers. Visit their website to learn more about these types of shipping containers.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Robert_Albright

Differing Ways Of Use Of Aluminum Railings

2008-08-22T03:04:00.000-07:00

Aluminum is being used since a long time as a lightweight material for all construction and building works. Aluminum alloys are being used in every industry from Aviation industry to zip making. The strength to weight ratio is higher in case of aluminum to steel. The long life comes from the higher corrosion resistance of aluminum.

The Lightweight Solution – Aluminum Railings

Aluminum rails can be used in different ways. These ways that increase the life of aluminum are,

Anodizing of aluminum: The corrosion resistance of aluminum is further increased by a thin coating on aluminum. The anodized surface of aluminum prevents further oxidation of the corrosion of the aluminum.

Strengthen with wooden inserts: Wooden blocks inserted in the cavity of aluminum forms give added strength to aluminum and thus lighter sections can be used for the same work, further reducing the weight of structure.

Powder coating of aluminum: New painting techniques such as the powder coating add to the visual appeal of the railings. The overall effect of created by riot of color combination that are available is just amazing.

PVC coating: Aluminum can be coated after complete fabrication with PVC by various methods. This further increases the life of the aluminum products. It also gives a beauty treatment to the aluminum.

Ease of installation with Aluminum

Many manufacturers are coming up with solution in use of aluminum in railings. The use of the bottom posts in which the aluminum verticals can be fixe, speed up the erection process. The DIY enthusiasts find such solutions very useful since it reduces the time required doing for such work. These posts are made out of PVC, CPVC or such manmade materials.

Aluminum alloys also find increased use in the manufacture of railings and this gives an extended life to railings. The alloying with other metals increases further the already high strength to weight ratio and corrosion resistance.

Adam Peters is a freelance author who contributes adding articles to a website focused exclusively on deck and porch railings, http://www.deck-porch-railings.com. Where you will find further articles on aluminum railing plans and designs.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Adam_Peters

Superior Industries International, Inc. Announces Quarterly Cash Dividend

2008-02-15T03:13:00.001-08:00

VAN NUYS, Calif. -- Superior Industries International, Inc. (NYSE:SUP) announced today that it will distribute a regular quarterly cash dividend on the common stock of the Corporation in the amount of $0.1550 per share payable April 22, 2005, to shareholders of record as of April 8, 2005.

About Superior Industries

Superior supplies aluminum wheels and other aluminum components to Ford, General Motors, DaimlerChrysler, Audi, BMW, Isuzu, Jaguar, Land Rover, Mazda, MG Rover, Mitsubishi, Nissan, Subaru, Toyota and Volkswagen. For more information, visit Superior's Web site at www.supind.com.

Forward-Looking StatementsThis press release contains statements that are forward-looking statements within the meaning of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995. These statements are based on current expectations, estimates and projections about the company's business based, in part, on assumptions made by management. These statements are not guarantees of future performance and involve risks, uncertainties and assumptions that are difficult to predict. Therefore, actual outcomes and results may differ materially from what is expressed or forecasted in such forward-looking statements due to numerous factors and risks discussed from time to time in the company's Securities and Exchange Commission filings and reports. In addition, such statements could be affected by general industry and market conditions and growth rates, and general domestic and international economic conditions. Such forward-looking statements speak only as of the date on which they are made and the company does not undertake any obligation to update any forward-looking statement to reflect events or circumstances after the date of this release.

Jammin' products for you nitro rig

2008-02-15T03:12:00.000-08:00

Jammin' Products has just released a new line of graphite and machined-aluminum components for many popular nitro-powered off-road models. Jammin, Jay Halsey, a former ROAR national champion, has been manufacturing graphite and machined-aluminum components on an OEM basis for many well-known R/C manufacturers, and his company now produces hop-up parts that will soon be available at a hobby shop near you.Shown here are some of the components the company offers for the Mugen MBX-4 and the Kyosho MP-5 and MP-6 1/8-scale off-road buggies. Jammin' also offers super-thick shock towers for the Associated RCl OGT and Team Losi NXT. Give Jammin' Products a call at (909) 465-9728 for more information.

Pusher mounts to many conveyor models

2008-02-14T03:29:00.000-08:00

Offering stroke lengths of 7 and 10 in., light-duty Model LD mounts to side of conveyor to push lightweight products off at right angle to product flow. Unit features aluminum face and standard mounting for conveyor Models TA, 138 and 190 NSP, 190-LR, and 190-A

Hytrol's LD Pusher is a light duty pusher designed to easily mount to the side of many conveyor models. The LD Pusher provides an economical solution for pushing light-weight products off at a right angle to product flow.

Some Features:

o Available in two stroke lengths - 7" and 10"

o Aluminum Pusher Faceo Standard mounting for many Hytrol models including: TA, 138 & 190 NSP, 190-LR, 190-ACZ.

Dibond materials

2008-02-14T03:28:00.000-08:00

Alcan Composites USA of Statesville, N.C., introduces Dibond materials, one of many new graphic display substrates. Dibond is a lightweight, yet rigid, aluminum composite material that consists of two sheets of aluminum bonded to a thermoplastic core. It is pre-painted with a polyester finish, and is available in 2-mm, 3-mm and 4-mm thicknesses.Stock sheet sizes are available measuring 48 by 96 inches, 48 by 120 inches and 60 by 120 inches. Dibond Material may be used in large-format digital and electrostatic printing, photo mounting applications and screen-printing.

Solar Window Heater: South Facing Savings

2008-02-05T00:59:00.000-08:00

I recently discovered an inexpensive, eco-friendly product to supplement your home heating system. It's a compact, but efficient, solar powered room heater designed to be installed in the south facing rooms of your house or apartment.

Since it's powered by the sun, and heats with hot air, the only mechanical or moving part is a simple fan that draws room temperature air into the heating panel through a series of heating channels, and then exhausts the heated air back into the room.

The basic solar window heater is 20" x 32" x 3.5" and framed in clear pine for painting or staining. Think of it as a box with an aluminum panel (collector) behind a sheet of air tight Plexiglas on the outside, and a sheet of thin wood on the inside to trap the collected heat.

Within the box are two baffles configured to look like a maze. This allows for a continuous stream of air to be heated as it is drawn through the box by the fan.

The aluminum collector panel is finished in flat black to maximize heat absorption from the sun. On a day with full sun, the panel will reach temperatures of 140 - 170 degrees.

A newer version of the solar window heater replaces the aluminum panel with high quality copper, also finished in flat black.

Located inside the panel is a thermostat switch. When the temperature of the heated air reaches 120 degrees, the switch automatically turns on the fan. When the air temperature cools to 90 degrees or less, the fan shuts itself off.

The small, efficient fan will move 102 cubic feet of air per minute or about 6,000 cubic feet per hour. The cost of electricity to operate the fan is around $3.00 per year.

The basic model sells for around $150.00. The newer, copper lined solar window heater sells for an additional $10.

The electrical components are available separately for $42.95. They include the fan, thermostat, junction control box and transformer. If you're handy, you could probably build your own solar window heater for around $80.

Dangerous Cookware - How It Can Affect Your Baby's Food

2008-02-05T00:58:00.000-08:00

When preparing homemade baby food, we parents are always careful to ensure that the foods we choose are healthy and appropriate for our babies. Something that many of us overlook, however, is the suitability of the pots we're cooking in -- yet the fact is that cookware made from certain materials may not be ideal for the preparation of baby food.

* Unlined or uninsulated copper pots should not be used to cook your baby's food. This is because copper destroys both vitamins C and E and also the folic acid in the food. In addition, acidic foods cooked in copper pots can contain toxic levels of copper.

* Aluminum pots are also believed to be unsafe for cooking your baby's food. Acidic foods cooked in aluminum pots can dissolve very small quantities of aluminum, which may then be absorbed into the food. Anodized aluminum cookware is a safer alternative, because the the anodizing process "locks" the aluminum into the cookware.

* Stainless steel cookware is made up of a mixture of different metals. It is generally considered to be very safe -- but you shouldn't use it to cook your baby's food if it is particularly pitted or dented. You should also avoid scrubbing your stainless steel cookware with an abrasive substance, because this can cause small quantities of nickel and chromium to be released into food.

* You should avoid cooking your baby's food in non-stick pans because the non-stick coating may chip off and end up in the food. It is also believed that toxic fumes can be released by heating a non-stick pan to a very high temperature.

No one knows exactly how hazardous these types of cookware are to health and research has yet to come up with any conclusive evidence. Some experts think that the risk is very low, or that only people who are sensitive to certain materials will react unfavourably.

But what would be considered a small risk to an adult may be significantly greater to a baby, so it's probably a good idea to look to safer cookware alternatives when cooking for your little one.

* Cooking with iron cookware is actually beneficial to health. When you cook acidic foods (like tomatoes) in iron pots, the foods actually "pull" the iron from the pot. This boosts the important dietary iron in your baby's food.

* The FDA's Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition consider ceramic, glass and enameled cookware to be safe. You should avoid using older enameled cookware, though, because it may contain cadmium. Cadmium is a toxic substance which is no longer used in the manufacture of cookware in the US. You should also be careful of glazed ceramic cookware from overseas, where the regulations for the inclusion of cadmium and lead in cookware may not be as stringent.

For the sake of your baby's health AND your own, always make sure that your cookware is kept in very good condition - and don't use pots that are cracked, peeling, chipped or pitted.

Sweating: How Much is Too Much?

2008-02-01T03:10:00.000-08:00

Excessive sweating can be a sign of infection, stress or a decline in sex hormones, or it can be normal for you. When your body temperature rises, hot blood flows to your brain, which sends signals to increase the flow of blood to your skin and start you sweating. Your body temperature rises naturally when you exercise or have an infection. However, you can sweat without a high temperature when hormone levels drop. At the menopause, women lose most of their estrogen and when their temperatures rise, they sweat, even if the change is from below normal to normal. The same mechanism occurs when men lose their hormones, such as when they are being treated for prostate cancer.

You sweat the most under your arms and around your breasts, genitals and rectum. Many cases of excessive sweating can be controlled by applying products such as Drysol (20 percent aluminum chloride in alcohol) on your armpits and wrapping plastic wrap over them before you go to sleep If your armpits itch or burn, remove the plastic and wash the area with soap and water. This process reduces sweating for six to eight days. You can repeat the procedure when you start to sweat heavily again.

Most antiperspirants contain aluminum, which is the third most abundant element on the earth's surface and is safe for external use. Increased amounts of aluminum have been found in brains of people who have died of Alzheimer's disease, but all damaged tissue picks up heavy metals. The increased aluminum is the result of the damage, not the cause. No responsible studies have demonstrated any link between antiperspirant use and Alzheimer's, breast cancer or any other disease.

Many people sweat because they are nervous about appearing before an audience. An Inderal pill one half hour before public speaking or any other high-pressure event can prevent the sweating, shaking and other effects of stage fright. Check with your doctor.

Custom Dually Wheels

2008-02-01T03:07:00.000-08:00

One of the largest full size pickups on the market today feature two wheels and tires on each side of the rear axle. These large trucks are referred to as a "dually" and were made for hauling and towing heavy loads. They are often equipped with large V8’s, V10’s or Diesel engines. In the past few years, diesel performance has become an enormously popular.

Typical accessories found on dually pick up trucks are grille guards, nerf bars, headache racks, bed rails, mud flaps and large custom wheels. Turn your Chevy, Ford or Dodge dually diesel into a beast with custom wheels from Alcoa. The same company that gave us Alcoa aluminum also make popular custom dually wheels.

Alcoa custom dually wheels are your best choice. They make one piece forged aluminum wheels that are easy to keep their shine. When choosing Alcoa dually rims you will get the smoothest ride, better handling and one of the longest lasting wheel made.

Chevy lovers can choose a model 160251 LTS 5 spoke 8 bolt for the front or a model 161292 Hot Shot 8 bolt for the rear. If you have a Ford dually choose a 160291 "Classic 8" 8 bolt and Dodge owners can also find these same wheels for their dually trucks.

Why Alcoa Dually Wheels? Alcoa invented the aluminum wheel in 1948 and for more than 50 years have been the leader in aftermarket custom dually wheels. Now dually diesel owners can become some of the most tricked-out happy trucker's in the world.

Trade Show Choices: Banner Stands

2008-01-31T04:31:00.000-08:00

Among the many trade show display choices is a category we refer to as banner stands. There are about three different types of banner stands that are currently available commercially. We'll discuss each, their advantages, disadvantages, costs and relative merits.

Spring Back Banner Stands -- Spring back banner stands are made from extruded steel or aluminum hardware and printed graphics usually laminated to a vinyl or polycarbonate for added durability. Most spring back banner stands are very light weight, about 25" to 35" wide and range in height from 76" to 88" at the most. Some can have various heights.

Advantages of the spring back are: very light weight, usually very inexpensive, pack in a small tube usually about 4-5" diameter by 35"-40" long.

Disadvantages of the spring back are: not very durable, graphic is not well protected during shipping.

Retractable Banner Stand -- Retractable banner stands have an aluminum housing that contains a spring loaded drum to which the graphic attaches. This housing is generally about 3"-4" in diameter and 35-55" long. There is a shock corded pole that is assembled and goes in the aluminum housing, then the graphic is pulled out of the aluminum housing against the spring loaded resistance to a height of generally about 76" - 88". These retractable banner stands come in varying sizes from 19" wide including 33.5", 39.5" up to 48" wide.

Advantages of the Retractable Banner Stand are: more durable, graphic is fully protected when not extended and during shipping, more stable when assembled because of the aluminum drum base.

Disadvantages of the Retractable Banner Stand are: more costly, graphic is not easily replaceable, retractable drum mechanism is more complex and may malfunction more easily.

Retractable/Replaceable Banner Stand -- Retractable/Replaceable Banner Stands are similar to retractable banner stands except that the aluminum housing is designed to accept a replaceable cartridge that holds the graphic in it. There currently are 3 sizes available - 19", 33.5" and 39.5". It works the same as the retractable except that the graphic is housed in a removable cartridge.

Advantages of the Retractable/Replaceable Banner Stand are: Easily replace the image in a few minutes. Graphic is well protected in the removeable cartridge. Very attractive, high quality hardware.

Disadvantages of the Retractable/Replaceable Banner Stand are: Most expensive, heavier, however those are about the only disadvantages.

There are numerous ways to display you message using banner stands, each one with advantages of the others. The most important thing to keep in mind regardless of which banner stand you choose is the content of your message is more critical that anything else.

Introduction to Aluminum-Lithium Alloys

2008-01-31T04:30:00.000-08:00

Lithium is the least dense elemental metal. When combined with aluminum to produce Al-Li alloys every 1% increase in lithium to the mix results in a 3% reduction in the density and therefore the weight of the resulting alloy the modulus also increases by approximately 5%. In addition to reduced weight Al-Li alloys also have increased stiffness, high elastic modulus, fatigue and cryogenic durability(the 3rd generation of Space Shuttle external fuel tanks are made of Al-Li alloy), however the increased stiffness of Al-Li alloys means reduced ductility and fracture resistance in the short transverse direction. Al-Li alloys have a high resistance to fatigue crack growth because of the jagged path cracks must follow through the alloy.

Some Al-Li alloys that are commercially available are: Alloy 2090 developed as a replacement for 7075-T6, offering 8% lower density and 10% higher stiffness than the conventional alloy that is used heavily in aircraft structures. The 2090 alloy also has a higher corrosion resistance in salt-spray (marine) environment than 7075-T6. Alloy 2091 developed as a replacement for conventional aluminum alloy 2024-T3, offering 8% lower density and 7% higher modulus as well as superior damage tolerance. Alloy 8090 developed as a replacement for some of the most long serving of the commercial aluminum alloys, namely 2014 and 2024. Alloy 8090 has 10% lower density and 11% higher modulus than these conventional counterparts, and 8090 exhibits superior mechanical properties at cryogenic temperatures. Weldalite 049 is a weldable Al-Li alloy designed to replace 2219 and 2014 in spacecraft launch systems. Weldalite 049 has a density of 2.7 g/cm3 has about 5% higher modulus than 2024, and tensile strengths of forged parts in excess of 700 MPa have been reported.

Al-Li is typically 3-5 times more expensive than other aluminum alloys due to the high cost of Lithium as well as high processing and handling costs. Al-Li alloys are typically used in the construction of aircraft wing edges and access covers. Military and space applications are also common as main wing boxes and main fuselage. Al-Li alloys should not be combined with some other aluminum alloys as there is a potential for explosive reactions

Aluminum Bat Can Ruin Your Career

2008-01-30T02:28:00.000-08:00

It should not be surprising if newly drafted players with both an extremely long swing and an ego to match claims to be a professional hitter!

Actually, it is not their mistake. These young upcoming players are fooled into thinking that they are professional hitters and that they are the most talented ones! In reality, their performance is attractive not because of their talent but because they had an aluminum bat swing!

Players with a typical aluminum bat swing, no doubt, have great success in high school and college. Such players are quite reluctant to change their swings. As they get consistent successes, they do not listen to the instructions given to them regarding their swings.

Finally, these players spend years of struggling in the low minors. When they realize that they cannot get a chance in big leagues, they decide to listen and pay heed to the instructions.

But, unfortunately, it becomes too late by then. They already get habitual of making long swings due to the prolonged use of their aluminum bats!

These players are advised to change their order if they are willing to have some success as a professional ball player. But, let me make it clear that they can advance to the AAA level, but will never be able to attain the success that they could have got if only they had paid little heed to the instructions given to them earlier.

Development of an improper swing and the incorrect training of the muscle memory prevent them from getting instant success. They fail to showcase their potential.

Celebrate Your 10th Anniversary with Some Special Gifts

2008-01-30T02:27:00.000-08:00

It is a normal for married duos to commemorate their wedding anniversaries. The 10th, 25th and 50th anniversaries usually are given extraordinary attention. Being committed to someone for an entire decade proves that the couple is devoted to each other. Raising a family is one of the many rewards of marriage, but it is also a serious responsibility. A certain type of gift is appropriate for many anniversaries. The traditional symbol for the 10th anniversary is tin or aluminum. Tin and aluminum symbolize the strength and durability of the couple's marriage.

One can stick to tradition way of buying gifts or there are many attractive and exclusive ideas for gifts that contain tin or aluminum, for example you can buy a large tin of chocolates, or to make the gift more personal you could even have them independently covered with the couples name on it, or a DVD box set that will not only keep with the theme for the years of marriage but will also give them a gift that will enjoy together, or many household items that are made of aluminum including ovens, cookers, wine racks, coffee makers etc.

One of the important facts about tin and aluminum is that most tins are made of this material meaning that you can choose the tin with fancy shapes of desired size and fill it with any contents you desire whether it is tickets to a weekend away or just a simple cuddly toy. The gift will not only match with the tradition but also one can be flexible with the costs of the gifts they keep in the tin.

Couples that have been married for 10 years clearly enjoy each others company. It is better to find something that they will enjoy together and will be considered thoughtful but does not necessarily have to cost you an arm and a leg. For this it is worth spending some time searching the Internet or visiting local shops to find something which has not crossed your mind at the first thought.

If the gift is from the husband to wife or vice versa one can book a holiday or a short break but feel that you would like to be more traditional. Why not purchase a suitcase that is made of aluminum and place the travel tickets inside, this will add both surprise and come across as very thoughtful. Triumphing the tenth anniversary for any couple will fill them with a sense of achievement and pride and this milestone should be celebrated in the best way possible!

Aluminum Trailers Are A Great Option For Your Needs

2008-01-29T05:58:00.001-08:00

Before you buy a trailer, it is important to decide what material you'd like the trailer to be made of. Two common options are steel trailers or aluminum trailers. If you like the idea of a lightweight, attractive, and rust free trailer, then aluminum trailers are the way to go!

Admittedly, there are nice enough trailers made with either material. Some people choose steel because they are less expensive. However, a lower price tag does not mean you will be getting the most for your money. Never settle for a steel trailer simply because of a lower price tag. Buying a trailer is a commitment, so you need to base your decision on more than price alone.

Steel trailers are usually a cheaper option, but they are certainly not better. Many people have found that steel trailers rust easily. After dealing with their frustrating steel trailer, they end up having to buy aluminum trailers later on anyway! They've now spent much more money than they would have it they had just purchased they to begin with.

Other people do not make this mistake and know the benefits of aluminum. Be careful though! Some manufacturers cut costs on them and make them cheaply. Then people end up buying cheap ones that give the industry a bad name. All trailers are not all created equal! In this case, you will most likely get what you paid for.

Another benefit of high quality kinds are that they are lightweight. This can be important if your vehicle cannot support the very high weight of steel.

Even though they are much lighter, some people still buy steel trailers. This can be a big mistake as some steel trailers end up rusting and eating away at your investment.

We all want our trailer to look the best, and only aluminum trailers offer the sleek, rust free look you want. If you want to impress people with your purchase, they are the way to go. Nothing is more embarrassing than putting your cargo in what looks like a rusty piece of junk. You never have to worry about that with high quality trailers.

Save up your money to get top of the line aluminum trailers. These offer maximum strength and give you more of what you need. This is very important when you want to protect your precious cargo.

They also have a track record of longevity. There is no danger of purchasing aluminum trailers only to have them fail a short time later. You can depend on them to get the job done and get it done right.

It is important to emphasize that you should never settle for cheap aluminum. Some manufactures will try to fool you into buying an inexpensive product. These simply do not stand the test of time.

Aluminum trailers are the best choice for your trailer needs. They are strong to protect your cargo and your investment. They look great and will give a positive lasting impression to others. Aluminum trailers will serve your needs for years and years to come.

Awnings Can Also Reduce Utility Bills

2008-01-29T05:57:00.000-08:00

Installing a patio awning for shade and protection is almost as good as adding a room to your home. When you have installed your awnings, you will find that your patio really is what you intended it to be when you dreamed about the idyllic spot. An awning prevents the sun hit that certain spot in the sky and flood the patio in bright, brilliant , yet unpleasant sunlight for it to remain comfortable. This is really where a patio awning comes in. You can also enjoy the comforts of having a unique patio and lights that let you sit outside after dark.

Protection

Some awning fabrics are made with as many as five layers of material, meaning more durability, strength, and protection from the sun, rain, snow, and wind. A great benefit to a door awning is the protection from rain. Another not so obvious benefit for a door awning is the indoor protection. A minor but important benefit is reduced utility bills.

If you plan for an awning, the main objective is more protection from outdoor elements so you can enjoy privacy and protection in the spring, summer, fall, and even winter months. A deck awning still provides protection from the elements but it is primarily designed to block out solar heat. Awnings are great, whether for a business, your home, or some other use, to enhance appearance while providing protection from outside elements.

Retractable

The retractable type of awning is the most versatile of all awnings. When choosing an awning, you can go with a design whereby the awning is out all the time or if you can choose a retractable awning that can be pulled back when you want to enjoy sunlight and open air. A great benefit of both the standard and retractable awning is that they can enhance the design of any architectural building. A retractable awning is not limiting your opportunities and makes entertainment with family and friends far more successful.

Aluminum

You would expect to find a caravan awning made with a steel or aluminum frame, which provides strength and durability. Another advantage with aluminum is that it can be painted, providing you a chance to show your personality and creativity. Professionals agree that if you want the best for your money when it comes to a metal awning, aluminum wins. An aluminum awning will also help in

Develop Products Faster Using Proven Rapid Prototyping Technologies

2008-01-05T02:52:00.000-08:00

Manufacturing technologies have advanced geometrically over the past twenty years. And rapid prototyping techniques have grown even faster. In all most every process that is used to make components, a complimentary process has been developed to make prototypes and short production runs.

Aluminum die casting has been the process of choice for the majority of high volume applications for decades. Volumes need to exceed 50,000 pieces per year. So what if you have a new product that you want to launch with 5,000 units and it involves several aluminum castings per product?

Is there a way to produce these components on a limited tooling budget?

Fortunately there are numerous processes for producing prototype and low volume precision castings. Several of the processes are:

1) Plaster Mold Casting

2) Graphite Mold Casting

3) V-Process Casting

What are the advantages of these processes? Precision castings that simulate the die casting method can be produced for a fraction of the upfront(tooling) costs required for die casting. Plus these methods have high volume production capabilities. All of the processes are capable of producing 100 units and then with the same tooling, can be ramped up to higher volume of 2,000 to 5,000 piece production runs.

These methods are also fast. Castings can be produced in 1-2 weeks if necessary.

These precision casting methods can produce components with .100 - .125 " wall thicknesses, with a surface finish of 125 rms. They then can be machined to your required dimensions and tolerancing.

For more information about aluminum castings, plastic injection molding, forging technologies, machining and other production methods visit www.manufacturingtips.com

Silicon, an Overlooked Trace Mineral?

2008-01-05T02:51:00.000-08:00

Even silicon, a trace mineral that is abundant in nature, can produce tremendous results far beyond the commonly known benefits for hair, nails and skin, when taken as a supplement. Here are some of the latest studies on this unsung hero.

Silicon has an important role in preventing osteoporosis. Bone loss occurs generally with aging, but accelerates during menopause and its resultant estrogen deficiency. Studies with animals indicate that silicon supplementation reduces the number of osteoclast cells, partially preventing bone resorption and bone loss1. On the other hand, Keeting et al, demonstrated that silicon stimulates DNA synthesis in osteoblast-like cells2. Animal models for osteoporosis using estrogen deficient rats show silicon supplementation preventing bone loss3. In a 1993 Study of 53 osteoporotic women, silicon supplementation was associated with a significant increase in mineral bone density of the femur4.

In addition to connective tissue and bone health, several other health benefits such as protection of arterial tissue and defense against aluminum toxicity derive from silicon.

It is believed that silicon bonds with aluminum in food, and in so doing reduces gastrointestinal absorption of aluminum. In rat studies, silicon was found to prevent the accumulation of aluminum in the brain5. The protective role of silicon on aluminum was confirmed in a French study of elderly subjects. High levels of aluminum in drinking water had a deleterious effect upon cognitive function when the silicon concentration level was low. When the silicon concentration was high, exposure to aluminum appeared less likely to impair cognitive function6.

Experiments with rabbits eating a high cholesterol diet demonstrate silicon’s benefit as a defense against atherosclerosis7.

Silicon in your diet

Silicon is used by plants for structural support; hence fiber rich foods such as cereals, oats, wheat bran and vegetables have high silicon concentration. Another source of organic silicon available only through medical professionals is coral from Brazil. On average it contains 1320 ppm, along with 72 other trace minerals. There are currently no established guidelines for silicon intake in humans, but there is evidence that supplementation is valuable.

Aluminum Fence Styles

2007-12-20T01:42:00.000-08:00

Aluminum fences are available in a wide variety of styles, designs, colors, and heights. The use of appropriately designed aluminum fences can enhance the looks of your home, pool, yard, or wherever they are used. Most aluminum fence styles come with matching gates to provide a neat, finished look.

A picket fence is a variety of fence that is used mostly for domestic boundaries. Aluminum fences have become a very popular material for picket fences.

Aluminum fences in traditional wrought iron deigns are very popular. They are available with picket points placed as the customer desires. Staggered picket points, evenly placed picket points, pointed pickets, or smooth edged pickets are the choices available to consumers. If you are not very fond of jutting picket points, there are styles that run a top rail over the pickets to enclose them. You are even given a choice of enclosed but exposed pickets or enclosed pickets with no exposed points.

On request, residential fences are manufactured using industrial grade aluminum. These can be designed according to your desires. By opting for this feature, one gets a hardy, durable, but stylish fence. Styles can be incorporated easily, as aluminum is easy to work with. Colonial styles with rounded railing over pickets are a very popular style for large fences.

Pool safety fences are generally made in no-fuss designs that make safety the primary consideration. Pool safety fences are made adhering to the regulations of minimum height required, gauge of metal, type and reliability of latch, no exposed pickets, and the like.

Features like a welded frame for extra strength, self closing gates, self latching gates, arched accent gates, and the like accentuate the looks and appeal of aluminum fences. The incorporation of such styles gives an elegant touch to aluminum fences.

Accessories like finials, scrolls, or ball caps made of rust free aluminum add a distinct element of style to aluminum fences and gates. A wide choice of colors also makes them adaptable to almost any aluminum fence. The most popular colors for fence accessories are gold, bronze, black, and white.

Bar Stool Information For When Buying Your Bar Stools

2007-12-20T01:41:00.000-08:00

Bar stools that boast aluminum construction has 2 excellent qualities not found on other bar stools be it wrought iron or solid wood. Aluminum has been heralded as one of the lightest and strongest metals in the world, which is strange combination being so and light and strong. It is one of the lightest metals that can be used to make bar stools with.

Aluminium is 1 of the top quality materials for bar stools manufacturers to use; this is primarily because it is very and strong with an impressive durable nature that works well as an alloy. The beauty of an aluminium bar stool is its durability, as most of the elements that would affect a wooden or other type of metal bar stool will have little or no effect on the aluminium.

Aluminium is a very good pick for a bar stool this is mainly because it won't ever rust. There's no never any need to worry about what state the bar stools will be like in the years to come, especially if the stools will be used on a daily basis in a restaurant or bar. Knocked over drinks and people tracking in the wet weather either the rain or snow from outside would quickly cause the oxidation of most other metals, but commercial grade aluminum doesn't corrode.

A lot of bar stools that are made from heavier grade metal or solid wood can be extremely heavy especially if they have solid back rests. With the heavier bar stool, unless they are fixed in place, can be a hazzard in a busy or compact bar or restaurant. If there are kids in and around them or old folks who might not have the strength to move them, or consider the worst, if and accident happens. Consider this, what if one of your employees happens to injure themselves while moving a bar stool made from a heavier material, you leave yourself open to a compensation payment plus you are then down a member of staff. Putting in some time honored research can reduce these odds dramatically making the aluminum bar stool a very safe and practical choice for your staff and customers.

Bar stool manufacturers make 2 kinds of aluminum bar stools, they are either all aluminum or only partially aluminum. The main advantage of an all aluminum bar stool is that the stool itself is about as light as you can possibly make a bar stool. But the one drawback with that is that the bar stool is more uncomfortable to sit in compared to stools with padded leather or wood seats. If you choose to go with 100% aluminum stools, look for those with molded seats that have indentations to more comfortably accommodate a pair of legs.

Safely closing the hatch: a remote controlled hatch-closing device reduces driver exposures to falls

2007-07-24T23:45:00.000-07:00

Climbing a cement tanker's ladder to open and close the top feed hatch can be tricky even when the driver uses the proper three-point contact technique. Dust and road grime often coat the ladder's treads and handrail, creating a slippery hazard even when dry.

But thanks to a new system developed by Salco Products Inc., a Lemont, Ill., manufacturer of dry bulk trailer accessories, one of your driver's least favorite and most dangerous tasks can be made much safer. When using their Salco's manway cover, the driver now remains on terra firma to close and seal the hatch.
Instead of the traditional flip/flop lid movement, the automatic opening device moves the hatch cover in a horizontal plane pivoting almost 270 degrees. An air-actuated piston, powered by tapping the tractor's air supply, does the work.

To open, the driven pulls down on the control valve to pressurize the system. The pressure causes the lid to rise from its sealing gasket. Then the piston slowly extends, causing the lid's bracket to rotate on the fixed pivot. To close, the driver closes the air switch, causing the piston to retract, and the lid returns to its locked and sealed position.

Not only is it safer, but the unit allows the task to be performed faster. The opening and closing operations each takes about 45 seconds.

The automatic manway cover system was design for easy installation on both new and old trailers. It seals the cover onto the trailer's ring using a standard cover and gasket. The cover can be installed on most trailers without welding. The installer normally needs only to remove the trailers existing brackets and then use the remaining hatch connections for mounting.
The control switch is contained in its own watertight enclosure and can be mounted on the trailer's side or in the truck cab. The mechanic merely connects in the air-line into the system from the truck's compressor and out to the locking mechanism.

For more information on the automatic manway cover, telephone Salco Products Inc. at 630-783-2570, or visit www.salcoproducts.com

RELATED ARTICLE: Concrete truck study.

Producers can gain insights on the state of the concrete truck industry by reading a new report prepared by SpecialtyVehicles.net (SVN) of Modesto, Calif. The report covers the manufactures of trucks for concrete mix, concrete boom pumps, and volumetric mixers.

The study examines the industry from the standpoint of manufacturers that fill the essential task of providing customers with a dedicated vocational vehicle for concrete transport delivery and placement. About 20 companies in the United States and Canada are analyzed with data on sales, production volumes, and employees. Details of major companies include descriptions of their business and key operating features.

A detailed industry summary provides an overall picture of the size of the industry in terms of units and dollars. It also offers a breakdown of unit and market share for each of the four truck types discussed.

The research focused on four types of trucks: rear-discharge, front-discharge, concrete pump, and volumetric mixer trucks. The analysis differentiates between complete trucks versus manufacturing and installation only, of the mixer or pump unit on purchased chassis.

SVN interviewed industry executives, searched the Internet, and scrutinized numerous public domain documents to come up with the findings.

Some of the results include:

* While the industry has numerous players and is highly fragmented, the leading manufacturer, McNeilus, accounts for only 55.7% of total sales, which are estimated at over $1.38 billion for all product categories.

* Rear-discharge mixers are the leading type of truck amongst the four types examined.

* There has been considerable growth in all truck categories, thanks to the housing and commercial building boom. However, the manufacturing of these types of trucks being cyclical, the report forecasts a slower growth outlook.

Making the cut: recyclers and manufacturers offer buying tips for ferrous shears and balers

2007-07-24T23:43:00.000-07:00

When recyclers are ready to step up to the plate and drop nearly $250,000 into a shear and baler setup, they'd better be sure they know what they are doing.

Dave Cobb, maintenance supervisor at EKCO Metals, Los Angeles, figures a shear should last about 20 years. His current machine, a Lollini USA model, is nine years old.

"On a scale of one to 10, I'd say it's about a seven on condition," Cobb says. "It's holding up well."

He has relined the floor and has recently replaced the shear head. "The head itself is a 10," he says. "It's like brand new."
The unit still is operating with its original hydraulics. But Cobb says EKCO maintains the unit well, which contributes to machine longevity.

But a lot of other things go into the buying decision. The first question a recycler might consider is whether to invest big bucks in a high-volume stationary unit with a typical 800- to 2,200-ton capacity or to go with a portable unit.

Among the chief considerations when determining whether to buy a portable unit are the consuming markets in a recycler's service area.

STATIONARY VS. PORTABLE. "Typically, stationary units are designed for greater throughput and produce heavier and denser bales," explains Ken Ely, president of Ely Enterprises, an equipment supplier based in Cleveland.

A recycler who is fulfilling a mill contract will almost certainly go with a stationary unit. However, in many cases it is difficult to bring in the required electrical service or to pour a concrete foundation for a stationary unit. In that case, portable equipment can fill the yard's bill.
Jay Klempner is owner of Louisville, Ky.-based Moros/North America, a distributor of Moros shears, which are manufactured in Spain. He says portable machines can do almost anything stationary units can do. He sees the difference as logistical. "Can you better feed the shear by going to where the material is, or will it come to you?" he asks.

Klempner sees a trend toward portable units, except in big cities, where more material typically comes to the yard.

Mike Pass, president of Peachtree City, Ga.-based Vezzani USA, a distributor of recycling equipment that is designed in Italy, says different materials call for different types of machines. Shears will cut material that does not lend itself to baling, such as I-beams, plate and structural material, producing a No. 1 or No. 2 heavy melt grade. Balers can process No. 1 factory clips, bundles or sheet iron, materials that can be bent.

"Portable units can only handle lighter materials due to the overall weight and structural integrity of the machines," Pass says.

John Sacco, president of Sierra International Machinery, Bakersfield, Calif., says, "Most grades can be fed to the stationary shears and balers, from HMS No. 1 to HMS No. 2. Also, clips from production can be baled. Portable loggers handle sheet, iron, appliances and automobiles." Meanwhile, a stationary baler can handle bulkier scrap and offer higher production.

Of course, portable balers come in different sizes, so the purchase decision depends on a recycler's budget and needs. "The quality of the machine is also a big factor," says Sacco.

Al-jon Inc., Ottumwa, Iowa, is another maker of portable balers, and its Scrap Sales Manager Curt Spry says his company is serving the growth portion of the market.

"Portable units are versatile; they can go and get loose scrap and process it into logs or bales to be transported to a high-volume shredder," he says.

Julian Marceglia, CEO of Colmar USA, Wheatfield, N.Y., says the company's Cayman mobile horizontal shears were designed to meet customer requests for a "truly portable shear."

A challenge, though, can be to build the requisite structural integrity into a portable machine in light of highway weight limits.

Almost famous: magnesium: although there are several applications of magnesium on high-visibility and high-volume vehicles, compared to even aluminum,

2007-07-04T00:30:00.000-07:00

Chances are, more people are familiar with magnesium through health and diet issues (you can get your fill by loading up on leafy green vegetables) than they are through the use of the element (which happens to be the eighth most abundant on the planet) for automotive applications. In fact, Eric R. Showalter, director, Advanced Manufacturing Engineering, Intermet Corp. (Troy, MI), which is a supplier of various types of cast-metal automotive components--including those produced with magnesium--points out that compared to the metals with which it competes, including steel and aluminum, there is a dearth of information about magnesium. When asked whether the application of magnesium is being slowed by those who remember chemistry experiments (academic or otherwise) involving magnesium in its brightly burning from, Showalter suggests, "What's impeding the progress of magnesium more is probably the lack of published properties and general knowledge about the material. There are books written on aluminum. Phase diagrams. Information about properties at different temperatures." But for magnesium? Well, that's another story. Although they are developing SAE and similar papers at Intermet, and while USCAR is working to promulgate information about the material, comparatively speaking, you're more likely to find out how magnesium can contribute to a healthy body than about why it is a valuable material for certain automotive components.
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(A word about that brightly burning magnesium. Yes, it is a highly reactive material. No, you're not likely to have an automotive component turn into some sort of a Fourth of July novelty due to the conditions under which the burning takes place. Showalter explains that when the material is in its molten state for purposes of casting great care is taken, with the overall environment being particularly clean and a shielding gas used on top of the molten material.)

MORE THAN MEETS THE EYE.

Which is not to say that magnesium is a material that isn't being used today in automotive applications. In fact it is being used in a number of them. For example, one of the big applications--both literally and figuratively--for the material is for the instrument panel (IP) beams on Cadillac models including the CTS, SRX, STS, and Seville. According to Showalter, a key reason why the move was made to magnesium for these beams is because they greatly simplify things. Whereas a similar stamped steel component would consist of something on the order of 20 to 25 individual pieces that would need to be welded together, the magnesium IP is one that has significant part consolidation. While it could be done (and is being done in other applications) as a single-piece IP, according to Gary L. Yager, product development manager at Intermet, Intermet personnel worked with people from General Motors to develop a two-piece IP beam. The behests of this approach are realized both in terms of product and process. From the product point of view, the IP-beam for the CTS, for example, readily lends itself to either right-hand or left-hand steering applications. There is a common passenger side piece and then one each for the right- or left-hand configuration. This is a serious savings as related to tooling costs. As for the process benefit, when the work was being done starting in 1996 on developing the magnesium IP component, apparently there weren't a whole lot of molding machines with 3,000+ tons of clamping force around. By making two smaller pieces rather than a larger one, the job can be done in 1,400- or 1,600-ton machines.

Magnesium is also used under the hood. Cam covers are being made for the material on vehicles ranging from the Dodge Viper to the new Ford F-150. One of the characteristics of the magnesium that makes it good for such applications is that it provides good sound dampening. Other applications include steering column components, grille opening reinforcements, and audio structures. Speaking of the last application, Nanda N. Gopal, director, Process Research and Development at Intermet, points out that magnesium provides good electromagnetic interference shielding. No doubt that characteristic will become even more appealing to people as the amount of electronic equipment in vehicles increases.

Safety Lockout Padlocks come in aluminum, steel, or Xenoy

2007-07-03T23:53:00.000-07:00

All Master Lock safety lockout padlocks are brightly colored so they are easily identified. They also offer thousands of key cuts, so that you can be sure that each padlock opens with a unique key. Some manufacturers offer a limited selection of key codes, so it is much more likely that one or more employees will have matching codes, meaning they can open each other's padlocks.

Master Lock will also chart your key codes so that when you order more padlocks, you can be certain no other padlock in your facility has the same key code.

Each variety of lock can be customize to identify the facility or employee who owns the lock. The laminated steel padlocks come with brass identification tags; our aluminum locks feature bright powder-coated bodies that can be laser engraved, and the Xenoy padlocks feature custom adhesive labels that can even hold photographs of your employees-there will be no doubt as to who owns the padlock.
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For more information about our padlocks or to obtain a Safety Series(TM) catalog, contact your nearest Master Lock distributor, call Master Lock at 1-800-308-9242 or visit the web site at

The inside track: twelve hot cars that live up to their hype

2007-06-19T02:22:00.001-07:00

THE BUZZ: Performance and value are the primary push, with Ford execs boasting, "This is a $30,000 interior in a $20,000 car."

FAVORITE FEATURES: Bigger brakes and improved traction control that help make the powerful car easier to handle in slippery conditions.

SPECS: 300-hp, 4.6-liter V8 or 210-hp, 4.6-liter V6 engine; five-speed manual or automatic transmission; front engine/rear-wheel drive.

BASE PRICE: $20,000 (estimated)

THE RIDE: CADILLAC STS

THE BUZZ: With the STS, Cadillac delivers high style, high performance and high technology.

FAVORITE FEATURES: Remote starting; magnetic suspension system; DVD-based navigation system; display that projects speed, fuel level and turn-signal indicators onto the windshield.

SPECS: 255-hp, 3.6-liter V6 or 320-hp, 4.6-liter V8 engine; five-speed automatic transmission; rear- or all-wheel drive.

BASE PRICE: $40,995

THE RIDE: HYUNDAI TUCSON

THE BUZZ: Hyundai's first entry into the small-SUV market is well equipped to be competitive.

FAVORITE FEATURES: Fold-flat seats for extra cargo space; removable covering in cargo area that exposes tie-downs to better manage gear.

SPECS: 173-hp, 2.7-liter V6 or 140-hp, 2.0-liter in-line four-cylinder engine; five-speed manual or four-speed automatic transmission; front engine/front-or four-wheel drive.

BASE PRICE: $17,000 (estimated)

THE RIDE: KIA SPECTRA5

THE BUZZ: It's a sportier take on the all-new Spectra introduced last spring, with a sleeker look.

FAVORITE FEATURES: Sport-tuned all-independent suspension system for better stability; standard four-wheel disc brakes; 10-year/10,000-mile powertrain warranty.

SPECS: 138-hp, 2.0-liter in-line four-cylinder engine; four-speed automatic or five-speed manual transmission; front-engine/front-wheel drive.

BASE PRICE: $15,535 *

THE RIDE: PONTIAC G6

THE BUZZ: The G6 marries European car traits like dynamic performance with American sensibility.

FAVORITE FEATURES: The more aerodynamic styling, with the wheels pushed out to the vehicle's edges, gives it a sportier look.

SPECS: 200-hp, 3.5-liter V6 or 170-hp, 2.4-liter in-line four-cylinder engine; four-speed automatic transmission; front engine, front-wheel drive.

BASE PRICE: $21,300

THE RIDE: LAND ROVER DISCOVERY 3

THE BUZZ: Looking a bit like the upscale Range Rover, the Discovery 3 is more spacious than even

FAVORITE FEATURES: A new Terrain Response system that helps drivers enjoy the ride regardless of road conditions; air suspension and steering that make the vehicle more agile and comfortable.

SPECS: 300-hp, 4.4-liter V8 or 215-hp, 4.0-liter V6 engine; six-speed automatic transmission; front engine/four-wheel drive.

BASE PRICE; $44,995

THE RIDE: SCION TC

THE BUZZ: "Upscale on a budget" is an apt description of this coupe, which offers such standard equipment as a moonroof and an MP3 player.

FAVORITE FEATURES: Automatic headlights; turn signals integrated into the rearview mirrors; rear seals that can be adjusted in ten different positions.

Making the cut: recyclers and manufacturers offer buying tips for ferrous shears and balers

2007-06-19T02:21:00.000-07:00

When recyclers are ready to step up to the plate and drop nearly $250,000 into a shear and baler setup, they'd better be sure they know what they are doing.

Dave Cobb, maintenance supervisor at EKCO Metals, Los Angeles, figures a shear should last about 20 years. His current machine, a Lollini USA model, is nine years old.

"On a scale of one to 10, I'd say it's about a seven on condition," Cobb says. "It's holding up well."

He has relined the floor and has recently replaced the shear head. "The head itself is a 10," he says. "It's like brand new."

The unit still is operating with its original hydraulics. But Cobb says EKCO maintains the unit well, which contributes to machine longevity.

But a lot of other things go into the buying decision. The first question a recycler might consider is whether to invest big bucks in a high-volume stationary unit with a typical 800- to 2,200-ton capacity or to go with a portable unit.

Among the chief considerations when determining whether to buy a portable unit are the consuming markets in a recycler's service area.

STATIONARY VS. PORTABLE. "Typically, stationary units are designed for greater throughput and produce heavier and denser bales," explains Ken Ely, president of Ely Enterprises, an equipment supplier based in Cleveland.

A recycler who is fulfilling a mill contract will almost certainly go with a stationary unit. However, in many cases it is difficult to bring in the required electrical service or to pour a concrete foundation for a stationary unit. In that case, portable equipment can fill the yard's bill.

Jay Klempner is owner of Louisville, Ky.-based Moros/North America, a distributor of Moros shears, which are manufactured in Spain. He says portable machines can do almost anything stationary units can do. He sees the difference as logistical. "Can you better feed the shear by going to where the material is, or will it come to you?" he asks.

Klempner sees a trend toward portable units, except in big cities, where more material typically comes to the yard.

Mike Pass, president of Peachtree City, Ga.-based Vezzani USA, a distributor of recycling equipment that is designed in Italy, says different materials call for different types of machines. Shears will cut material that does not lend itself to baling, such as I-beams, plate and structural material, producing a No. 1 or No. 2 heavy melt grade. Balers can process No. 1 factory clips, bundles or sheet iron, materials that can be bent.

"Portable units can only handle lighter materials due to the overall weight and structural integrity of the machines," Pass says.

John Sacco, president of Sierra International Machinery, Bakersfield, Calif., says, "Most grades can be fed to the stationary shears and balers, from HMS No. 1 to HMS No. 2. Also, clips from production can be baled. Portable loggers handle sheet, iron, appliances and automobiles." Meanwhile, a stationary baler can handle bulkier scrap and offer higher production.

Of course, portable balers come in different sizes, so the purchase decision depends on a recycler's budget and needs. "The quality of the machine is also a big factor," says Sacco.

Al-jon Inc., Ottumwa, Iowa, is another maker of portable balers, and its Scrap Sales Manager Curt Spry says his company is serving the growth portion of the market.

"Portable units are versatile; they can go and get loose scrap and process it into logs or bales to be transported to a high-volume shredder," he says.

Julian Marceglia, CEO of Colmar USA, Wheatfield, N.Y., says the company's Cayman mobile horizontal shears were designed to meet customer requests for a "truly portable shear."

A challenge, though, can be to build the requisite structural integrity into a portable machine in light of highway weight limits.

Earl J. Weber Jr., vice president of Garden Street Iron and Metal Inc., Harrison, Ohio, says the company typically uses stationary units, though Garden State has portable units that it purchased simply because they can be moved around. The company uses the Harris BSH-22-883-B-3 shear, but also has portable units from Sierra.

"We can take the portable South when the hurricanes hit," Weber says.

Garden State also uses the portable units for lighter grades. The company processes aluminum and stainless through its portable units.

Hawk Steel Industries, Kennedale, Texas, uses a stationary Colmar shear/ baler in its preparation of specialty foundry grades. The company also deploys portable balers at demolition jobs and other off-site locations.

Stationary units with higher forces can handle heavier, bulkier material at high production rates. They typically produce high-density (mill spec) bales.

Opportunity knocks: the Curbside Value Partnership maintains that strengthening curbside programs is the key to increasing recycling rates

2007-06-18T23:05:00.001-07:00

What is the best way to slow declining recycling rates? How can we motivate apathetic consumers to recycle?

There are probably dozens of different responses to these questions. Anyone who attended this year's NRC Congress in Atlanta will agree that the recycling community is united in its desire to improve participation in recycling programs. However there is disagreement on the best way to actually accomplish this goal.

Is single-stream recycling the solution? Will re-branding recycling do the trick? Does mandatory recycling or pay-as-you-throw work? What about focusing on recycling on-the-go?

The real answer is all of the above can and do work--some of the time, in certain communities.

HOME ECONOMICS

Sadly, there is no cookie-cutter, one-size-fits-all solution. As we all know, recycling is complicated. If it was easy, we'd already have 100 percent participation rates.

I've been involved with recycling for many years and have seen, heard or tried every trick in the book to get consumers to be more diligent in their recycling practices. The solution, I believe, is to focus on residential curbside recycling programs. Here is where we can make the most progress among the most communities. Curbside programs are the proverbial "low hanging fruit."

* There is room for growth. Curbside participation rates vary by community, but the average is around 58 percent.

So, my answer to question No. 1 is to go where the biggest opportunity is (at the curbside) and fix it there first. Then you can tackle some of the other concerns.

Three years ago the aluminum industry joined forces as the Aluminum Can Council (ACC) to do just this. With funding from Alcoa, Anheuser-Busch Metal Container, ARCO, Ball, Novelis and REXAM, the ACC has been able to study the need that exists among municipal officials and other stakeholders, to create tools and partnerships to address those needs and most importantly, to ground all activities in measurable data so that best practices and lessons learned can be shared credibly.

Recognizing this, the Curbside Value Partnership (CVP) was formed. Significant resources have been dedicated by the aluminum industry to make the CVP a success and to recruit as many communities as possible into the program.

To date, nearly 30 communities are working with CVP as partners. Hundreds of others benefit by utilizing its free templates and tools online (www. recyclecurbside.org), reading about best practices and lessons learned in the organization's free quarterly news-letter "Bin Buzz" or hearing about it through the media or at national, state and local conferences.

IN FOCUS

Throughout the past three years, the CVP has uncovered several key findings that offer new ideas and measurable solutions to increase participation in curbside recycling programs:

Finding No. 1--Focus on growing participation. There is a disconnect between how much people say they recycle and how much they actually do. A recent study conducted by the city of Charlotte, N.C., for example, found that 74 percent of homeowners say they participate every week, but a setout study revealed that only 43 percent of them had bins on the curb.

By adding new participants to your program, you are exponentially increasing the amount of recyclables collected.

While it would be nice to launch a specific campaign geared at getting residents to recycle their phone books, for example, you are missing the bigger opportunity of growing your full program. Focus on the bigger opportunity first, then get specific with population groups or individual commodities.

Finding No. 2--It's all about the bin! This finding really echoes of finding No. 1.

More participation equals more bins, which equals more recycling.

One of the most effective ways to increase participation in your program immediately is to get more bins or carts on the curb. Do whatever you need to do. Hold bin drives. Give them away flee. Deliver them upon request. Just do it--today.

Finding No. 3--Budget for education. You have to promote a program effectively in order to sustain participation. Don't assume that because your homeowners three years ago knew about how to get a bin and what to put in the bin, they still know.

Despite the perception that marketing can be costly, it doesn't have to be. You simply need to spend what money you do have more wisely. Here are some examples of cost-cutting communications options:

* Instead of mailing a recycling calendar to all residents, a municipality could post pickup information on the Web and create an e-mail reminder service for residents.

Discovering Western North Carolina: outdoor adventures, from rockhounding to rafting, await in the awesome Appalachians

2007-06-18T23:04:00.000-07:00

FROM A SUMMIT MEADOW along a ridgeline, we looked out across the expansive valley that encompasses the 1,000-acre Cataloochee Ranch in Western North Carolina. The fields were still green on this October day, but trees splashed red and gold as far as the eye could see--and that was pretty far. Twenty miles to the southeast, Mount Pisgah's 5,750-foot peak loomed in the Pisgah National Forest, while a bit to the fight we could see Cold Mountain, the isolated peak that had lent its name to both the novel and the film.

"They scouted us heavily here for the movie," said Judy B., our guide, and one of about eight family members who still actively participate in the daily operations of the 80-year-old ranch. "We were kind of glad they choose Romania instead."Our three horses were tied to nearby trees, the breeze softly rustled the leaves on this bright fall day, and I knew from the sounds of silence exactly what Judy meant. While much has changed the world since the 1800s, and tourism has taken over from farming, ranching, and the timber industry, this area still looks pretty much as it did back then. Directly behind us a split-rail fence marked the southeastern boundary of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park.

The woods are as deep as the day that Tom Alexander first saw them as a forest ranger in 1935, and today the ranch that he founded with his wife, "Miss Judy," still offers the same kind of mountain hospitality, scenic beauty, and soft adventure that guests have been finding here for eight decades. It's one of the most established family adventure vacation venues in the Western Carolina mountains, featuring trail rides, hiking, trout fishing, and a relaxed family atmosphere, where meals are served family-style inside and outdoors and guests return year after year.

I watched the faces of the kids as they donned their helmets and mounted up for the first of two daily trail rides. Most had smiles as wide as those on the Halloween jack-o-lanterns carved the previous evening, while others seemed raptly intent with the whole prospect of riding off into the hills.

Within a 50-mile radius of Waynesville, North Carolina, the closest major town to Cataloochee Ranch, there is a broad selection of outdoor adventures. Rafts shoot through rapids and canoes glide down rivers. Hiking trails lead to cascading waterfalls and small hands pan for gems in sluice boxes. Throw in camping, mountain biking, trout fishing in wooded streams, swimming in hidden lakes, and a number of manmade attractions and you've got an unbeatable Carolina cache of both environmental and commercial entertainment.

Contact: Cataloochee Ranch, 119 Ranch Drive, Maggie Valley, NC 28751; (800) 868-1401; www.cat aloochee-ranch.com.

Here are some other great destinations in the mountains of North Carolina:

BRYSON CITY. In this rugged corner of the state, Bryson City abuts the tallest region of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park; Clingman's Dome is the third tallest peak in the eastern U.S. at 6,643 feet. The old-fashioned mountain town straddles the Tuckaseegee River and, while it's pleasant enough, most people come here for the spectacular scenery and outdoor activities, including kayaking, rafting, camping, hiking, and just driving around.

The town of 1,500 people sits near the eastern perimeter of Fontana Lake, which extends almost 25 miles west to the 480-foot-high Fontana Dam, the tallest in the eastern U.S. It was built in World War II to supply power to nearby Knoxville, Tennessee, where Alcoa had an aluminum plant and the top-secret atomic research plant was esconced at Oak Ridge. The dam and lake are considered top draws here, but when you combine them with Great Smoky Mountain Railway from Bryson City, you have a unique and fun way to explore the lower regions of the Nantahala Gorge. The train has both diesel and steam-powered locomotives, and on one excursion, you can ride to the end of the gorge, then raft back.

Rafting is big here. A number of outfitters located along US Highway 19 west of Bryson City offer whitewater rafting down the Nantahala at various levels for all ages, as well as inflatables for both self-guided and guided trips, mountain biking, rock-climbing, fly fishing, and hiking on the Appalachian Trail.

Specifier's information

2007-06-07T04:03:00.000-07:00

Making unsightly carpet joins into a smart feature, Stairrods' latest range includes the first ever black nickel door threshold. Together with wrought iron handles, hooks and hinges, the threshold can now help achieve a sophisticated and coordinated look. Joints work with a variety of flooring, including carpet, vinyl, wood, natural flooring and stone and are suitable for contract and domestic use. Each joint is 38mm wide and comes in 813 or 914mm lengths, which can be cut to fit most doorways. Easily fitted with screws, invisible to the eye, the carpet joins can be simply wiped clean if necessary.Comar Architectural Aluminium Systems are comprehensive purpose-dedicated suites of extruded aluminium profiles and interacting components. Designed for glazed facades and roofing, new build and refurbishment, COMAR'S experience, product performance, research and development, and design maintain its trusted position at the forefront of aluminium system technology. For cladding and curtain walling. COMAR offers the specifiers a choice of high-tech solutions: COMAR 2 Window System, and COMAR 6 Curtain Walling / Glass Roofing.Barcelona Airport is big, busy and has the capacity for over 40 million passengers a year. Good acoustic performance is essential and Armstrong's Gema Metal Ceiling System was installed to provide both acoustics and attractive styling, Rectangular panels form an arch reaching up 2.8m from the low corner points to the central apex. Armstrong's Gema System perfectly suited the architects' need for speed, simplicity, comfort and functionality, and successfully created a bright and friendly environment.

Aluminum tube inserts and much more

2007-06-06T05:29:00.001-07:00

J.W. Winco, Inc.'s metric threaded tube inserts serve as end plugs in tubing, enabling them to be fitted with threaded leveling feet. The aluminum inserts are designed to bridge an internal diameter tolerance of [+ or -] 0.5 mm on both round and square tubing.

A selection of inch- and metric-sized adjustable levers, cabinet U-handles, plastic and steel hinges and locking mechanisms are available from the company. Also offered are revolving and retractable handles; handwheels; hand cranks; conveyor components; leveling mounts; hand knobs; spring, ball and indexing plunger; jig, fixture and fastening components; toggle clamps; and more.

ALUMINUM INDUSTRY BUCKS GLOBAL TREND

2007-06-06T05:27:00.000-07:00

Data released by the Indian government's Central Statistical Organization (CSO) show that the Indian economy grew by 8.9% in the April-June 2006 quarter. A large portion of this strong growth has come from the manufacturing sector, which grew by 11.3%. India's economic growth in recent years has been powered by services, especially information technology-based, but manufacturing growth has been adding to the momentum.

While IT and banking have been the usual growth drivers, for the past few quarters the trade, transport, travel and communication sectors have also helped considerably. According to the CSO, this segment grew by 13.7% for the April-June 2006 quarter compared with 11.7% in the corresponding quarter last year. The rapid growth in Indian manufacturing is prompting significant capacity additions, especially in the metals industry. The National Aluminum Company (NALCO), which is publicly listed but controlled by the government, has announced a $3.5 billion greenfield expansion project where it will increase its alumina refining capacity by 1.5 million tons annually and will also build a new 2.5 million-ton aluminum smelter. The new construction bucks a global industry trend toward consolidation. India, which has significant deposits of bauxite, is one of the few places where capacity is growing, with other private-sector players such as Hindalco and BALCO already having announced new plants.

India's Tata Steel also showed ambitious expansion plans, confirming that it was considering a bid for Anglo-Dutch steel producer Corus.
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The country is also becoming a global manufacturing hub for small cars and is increasingly becoming a popular manufacturing destination for multinational auto companies. Mitsubishi recently announced it would build a new plant on India's west coast to manufacture 400,000 cars a year entirely for the export market. Currently, Hyundai Motors is India's top small-car exporter, with more than 100,000 cars sent overseas annually from its plant located on the east coast. Hyundai has already announced expansion plans to double exports to 200,000 cars. -Aaron Chaze

Awesome in aluminum

2007-06-02T03:42:00.000-07:00

Although aluminum per se is not ordinarily considered an "advanced material," there can be little question that the Ferrari F430 is among the world's most advanced motor vehicles, so given that, and given the extensive use of aluminum on the F430--following the firm's success with the all-aluminum 360 Modena--in some ways aluminum can qualify as an advanced material.

Ferrari's goals with the F430 material selection were two-fold: structural stiffness and safety without adding weight. The curb weight for the European-spec vehicle is 3,196 lb. Ferrari worked with Alcoa on the aluminum structure for the F430, as it did on the 360. According to Dr. Axel Forderreuther, development manager, Alcoa Advanced Transportation Systems, in a presentation at the 7th European Automotive Lightweight Conference in Bad Nauheim, Germany, compared to the 360 Modena, the bending stiffness is up 8%, the torsional stiffness up 20%, the energy absorption in front crash up 37%, the energy absorption in a rear crash up 105% (in compliance with U.S. standard 301).

According to Ferrari, extensive finite element analysis was used in the development of the chassis. The structure itself consists of a series of extrusions, castings, and sheet. Alcoa figures show that there are 65 extrusions (excluding bumpers), 12 castings, and 90 sheet parts. Riveting and/or welding are used for assembly. After the structure is welded, high-speed machining is performed of the complete space-frame in order to smooth the structure.

One area where there is really an advance is the floor. An alloy that is commonly used in aeronautical applications, 7075 T6, is being used in the F430, and this is said to be the first-ever application of the material in an automobile chassis.

One notion of how well the vehicle is put together can be derived from the fact that given a variety of factors--including the door structure, chassis reinforcements, collapsible arm rest positioning, and seats--it was determined that side impact safety is so good that side airbags aren't necessary.

Supplement uses aluminum bottle

2007-06-02T03:41:00.000-07:00

A new dietary supplement comes in an aluminum bottle for shelf presence and protection against counterfeiting.

Trimspa is using aluminum bottles from CCL Container for its entire line of nutritional supplements, including X32, LipoSpa and CarbSpa. Anti-counterfeiting features include intricate lithography, with a monochrome screened photo image as background and a debossed portion of the Trimspa logo on the container's side.

The package also incorporates tamper-evidence features, including a lip with increased surface area to accommodate a pressure-sensitive seal and a plastic band around the neck and closure.

CCL Container

203-354-4523; www.cclcontainer.com

Suriname government considers lobbying for Alcoa smelter

2007-04-21T04:41:00.001-07:00

The current administration is prepared to negotiate with multinational Alcoa to build an aluminium smelter in Suriname, if plans to construct a smelter in Trinidad & Tobago are cancelled, a government minister here disclosed.

Construction of the multi-million dollar facility in the Chatham/Cap-de-Ville area is being strongly opposed by local communities and environmental organisations in Trinidad.

"We're not ruling out the possibility for a lobby campaign for the smelter," said Gregory Rusland, Suriname's energy minister in an invited comment. He added that, with or without a smelter in Trinidad, the Suriname government will negotiate for establishment of an aluminium smelter in the country since, according to the minister, the country will have a significantly larger income with the production of aluminium instead of just bauxite or alumina.

Due to increased production costs, Alcoa's subsidiary in Suriname, Suralco, terminated aluminium production in the country several years ago.

Minister Rusland stressed that environmental concerns should not be an issue as long as these matters are addressed and taken into account seriously when such plans are being tabled. Before a decision to build any facility, which has significant effects on the environment and local communities, an environmental and social impact study will be done, Rusland said.

The minister further stated that, if Suriname is pushing for greater economic development, the country has to pay a price and that some of that price would be to give up part of its environment and bio-diversity. However any industrial activity should be in such a fashion that it would put as little stress as possible on the environment.

The resistance in Trinidad to the aluminium smelter could be a second chance for Suriname to have such facilities. Some four years ago Alcoa's top official Alan Belda visited Suriname and offered the Venetiaan administration a US$3 billion integrated aluminium facility including a smelter. However the government rejected the offer. "We could still benefit from that missed opportunity," said the energy minister.

Currently, preparations are well underway to start negotiations with Alcoa/Suralco and BHP-Billiton for a bauxite mining contract for the lucrative deposits in the Bakhuys Mountains in the western part of Suriname. The minister warned, however, that although the exploration in these areas were executed by the two companies, it is not self-evident that these companies will eventually win the contract.

Rusland reiterated that Suriname should earn as much as possible from its natural resources and therefore will choose the best option or interested party which will deliver as such. The minister stated, however, that a relation of over 90 years with Alcoa and BHP-Billiton "is not something that you brush aside easily."

"We have a lot of experience with these companies and, with a new partner of whom you know nothing, of the future is uncertain," said Rusland.

Next week, President Venetiaan will swear in a team of experts that will negotiate with the multinationals.

Meanwhile, the internationally renowned research institute, TNO Delft in the Netherlands, has won a contract to analyse the data the multinationals have collected during the explorations in the Bakhuys Mountains.

Several members of Parliament and financial advisers to the government have suggested that the government open an international bidding round for the bauxite deposits in the Bakhuys Mountains.

LME copper ends lower; Tin up

2007-04-21T04:40:00.002-07:00

London Metal Exchange copper retreated from earlier session highs, pulling the rest of the base metals complex down with it, but the lower prices should be seen as a good buying opportunity, brokers said Monday.

After nearing the psychological $8,000 a metric ton earlier Monday, three-month copper retreated on fund selling and profit-taking, according to base metals brokers.

Some traders were disappointed by the markets' inability to hold onto higher prices and decided to sell, a London broker said.

Once copper prices fell below $7,800/ton, sell-stops were triggered. Considering the strong price rally seen over the past few weeks, it isn't surprising to see prices consolidate, said Michael Widmer of Calyon in London.

However, China still has an interest in buying copper and bargain hunters should help the market recover from Monday's bottom, the London broker said.

Earlier in the day, LME copper made gains until the close of the second ring session Monday morning as a result of cash buying ahead of the third Wednesday prompt date, market participants said.

In addition, market speculation that China's State Reserve Bureau has authorized smelters to make purchases on its behalf attracted some buyers earlier Monday. There has been no clarification from the SRB, but copper market participants have taken the reports as a bullish sign.

Meanwhile, a possible strike at PT Freeport Indonesia's massive Grasberg mine and flooding near Xstrata's Alumbrera mine in Argentina were providing underlying copper price support and will be closely monitored by market players.

The Grasberg mine is 90.64%-owned by U.S.-based Freeport McMoRan Copper & Gold Inc, with the remainder held by the government. Its daily output is some 1,800 metric tons of copper and 9,000 troy ounces of gold a day.

On Friday, Xstrata PLC announced it would delay two copper shipments until May at its Alumbrera copper mine, due to flooding in the region. However, production wasn't affected, a company spokeswoman said.

The other LME base metals took their cue from copper. Nickel retreated some 3% from its session high to around $46,000/ton while zinc declined some 2% from its high to hover around $3,500/ton.

Copper leads base metals higher as supply fears add to strong demand

2007-04-21T04:40:00.001-07:00

Copper rose in early trade, leading across-the-board gains in the base metals, as confirmation of strong demand from China, the world's biggest importer of the red metal, and supply fears from Indonesia and Argentina lifted prices.

Meanwhile both tin and lead remained near all-time highs as positive sentiment spilled over into the remainder of the base metals complex.

"The market is solidly higher this morning with the base metals responding to supply disruptions in the copper market as well as quite strong import numbers into China in the March month," said Michael Jansen of JP Morgan in a note.

At 11.39 am, copper for three-month delivery stood at 7,900 usd per tonne, against 7,705 usd at the close on Friday.

Investor sentiment in the copper market has remained broadly positive, analysts said, with speculative longs rising in recent weeks, while speculative shorts have fallen steadily since peaking at the end of last year.

Demand remains strong, with customs data from China showing the Asian giant imported a record 219,359 tonnes of refined copper and copper alloy in March, while imports in the first quarter hit 541,103 tonnes, more than double the level seen a year earlier.

Prices have also been boosted by supply disruptions at the Grasberg copper and gold mine in Indonesia, operated by PT-Freeport Indonesia, a subsidiary of US mining giant Freeport-McMoran Copper & Gold Inc.

PT-Freeport Indonesia mined 545,000 tonnes of copper in 2006, the company said in its full-year report earlier this year.

Workers at the Grasberg complex, which contains the world's largest single copper reserve, have organised a "rally" on Wednesday seeking a better deal on wages, which investors fear could disrupt output.

Meanwhile, UK miner Xstrata has declared force majeure over two shipments of copper from the Bajo de la Alumbrera mine in Argentina because of flood damage on a railway line to the port.

"Strong demand from China had already placed pressure on existing global copper supplies, but more recent delays have only stretched the tight availability of material," noted analysts at Deutsche Bank.

Among other metals, aluminium rose to 2,852 usd from 2,812 usd at the close on Friday, while zinc edged up to 3,560 usd from 3,540 usd.

Nickel rose to 47,518 usd from 46,500 usd, while lead rose to 2,035 against 1,995 usd and tin reached 14,425 usd from 14,350 usd.

HK-listed Chalco sees 2007 pro forma profit at 11.1 bln yuan under CAS

2007-04-21T04:39:00.002-07:00

Aluminum Corp of China Ltd (Chalco) expects its pro forma profit for 2007 to come in at 11.1 bln yuan under Chinese accounting standards (CAS), according to the company's preliminary prospectus for its planned A Share offering.

The company said it has applied to China Securities Regulatory Commission (CSRC) for issue of A shares in exchange for existing issued shares held by shareholders of Shandong Aluminium Industry Co Ltd (SHA 600205) and Lanzhou Aluminium Co Ltd (SHA 600296), its two Shanghai-listed units.

The company confirmed in the prospectus that it plans to issue 1.24 bln A-shares on the mainland at 6.6 yuan each.

The CSRC has said that it will review Chalco's A-share issue proposal tomorrow.

Macquarie revises estimates of China '07 aluminium output, sees rising world aluminium surplus

2007-04-21T04:39:00.001-07:00

China's aluminium production appears set to grow faster than expected in 2007, with current production rates pointing to output of 12.2 million metric tons, up 32% from 2006, Macquarie Bank said in a report Monday.

That would lead to a potential global surplus of 800,000 tons instead of 330,000 tons, Macquarie said.

The bank's current estimate is for Chinese aluminium output to rise 25% to 11.7 million tons this year, despite government efforts to curb energy-intensive aluminium production.

The stronger-than-expected output growth would leave China with an exportable surplus of 1.5 million tons, though so far, export data haven't shown any signs of a flood of exports, either of primary metal or semi-fabricated products.

"However, it is getting increasingly difficult to see how Chinese end-use demand can keep pace with such a massive boom in production," Macquarie said in a report.

Macquarie estimates China's demand for aluminium to grow 23% this year. It didn't give a figure for the estimated tonnage.

A rise in Chinese exports could weigh down London Metal Exchange prices, currently at $2,831/ton, up $19 on the Friday PM kerb.

On the upside, global aluminium stocks are close to record lows, and could absorb some of the downward pressure on prices arising from a surge in Chinese exports.

Supply disruptions in the alumina market – a key raw material in aluminium production – have reduced a forecast surplus, leaving the aluminium market with a "reasonably positive outlook," Macquarie said.

However, China accounts for both supply growth and the bulk of demand growth, making market outlook analysis difficult.

"Our concern is that while that may be the case for primary aluminium, it is likely that we will see further increases in Chinese exports of aluminium products in the coming months, which will ultimately detract from demand elsewhere," Macquarie said.

OAO Russian Aluminium to build US$2.9 bln plant in Indonesia

2007-04-14T02:45:00.002-07:00

OAO Russian Aluminium (Rusal), the world's third largest aluminium smelter, has announced a plan to invest Rp26 trillion (US$2.89 billion) in the construction of an aluminium factory and coal fired power plants in West Java.

West Java governor Danny Setiawan explained that the Russian company is likely to go ahead with the project immediately, and said he expects the aluminium plant to not only reduce unemployment, but to cut the country's dependence on imports for aluminium products.

Rusal and the West Java administration are scheduled to carry out a feasibility study for the plant in the next six months.

Tin ends sharply lower, Copper firm

2007-04-14T02:45:00.001-07:00

Profit-taking pressured London Metal Exchange three-month tin down over 5% Wednesday, but more surprising was perhaps that copper held steady, as recent oil strength offset bearish U.S. economic data and technical weakness.

Escalating tension between the U.K. government and Iran over 15 captured marines has buoyed oil prices near $65 a barrel, which has spilled over into copper price support, said Man Financial analyst Edward Meir.

He noted a 15% drawdown in inventories in March underpinning prices going forward, with the uptrend since February remaining intact.

Brokers and analysts had said earlier that copper looked at risk to a technical slide after failing to break above the 200-day moving average of $6,900 a metric ton Tuesday. Added to that were bearish signs for the U.S. economy with U.S. durable goods data up 2.5%, lower than expected.

But copper shrugged off profit-taking pressure early in the session lows to rise 1% on the day before retreating to $6,659/ton at 1728 GMT, down almost 4% from the week's high.

Meanwhile, three-month tin fell $790 to an intrasession low of $13,775/ton as investors booked profits ahead of month, quarter, and fiscal year end, after Tuesday's fresh record high of $14,600/ton.

"Those metals that are very illiquid...tend to get exaggerated.. what has gone up the most the day before, tends to get sold the next day," said UBS analyst Robin Bhar.

Tin has climbed almost 25% since the start of the year to fresh highs on the back of supply side concerns from Indonesia, which is the world's biggest producer.

The market is seen searching for a base around current levels for the near term, said Barclays analyst Sudakshina Unnikrishnan. As of 1806, the tin contract traded at $13,775/ton.

In other metals, LME three-month lead snapped back almost 3% as short-term speculators covered short positions after Tuesday's technical breakdown, one broker said. Lead has since clawed its way back to $1,905/ton at 1753 GMT.

Copper gains on bargain hunting but analysts doubt rally will last

2007-04-14T02:44:00.004-07:00

Copper prices rose in early afternoon trade as buyers capitalised on losses sustained by the metal earlier this week amid turbulence in oil prices and a weaker tone in equities.

At 1.55 pm, LME copper for three-month delivery rose to 6,725 usd a tonne, against 6,682 usd at the close yesterday.

'We are seeing investor demand (picking up) in the dips, given the 2.5 pct fall in prices yesterday,' said UBS analyst Robin Bhar. 'As we are moving into the peak demand season, consumers need to buy.'

Positive price movement in other commodities is also encouraging investors into the market, analysts said.

'The run in oil and bullishness in precious metals is encouraging some bargain hunting in base metals,' said BaseMetals.com analyst William Adams.

He added that he sees further downside potential for the metal going forward. Disappointing US economic data and concerns over the escalating geopolitical crisis over Iran have both weighed on copper in recent days.

The metal closed 170 usd lower yesterday after making a new high for the year, as the release of weaker than expected US consumer confidence data renewed concerns over the impact of slowing US growth on demand.

Standard Bank said copper is facing strong resistance at the 6,900-7,000 usd level and that, as a result, 'a period of corrective weakness is expected to come to the fore'.

Nickel was higher at 43,700 usd a tonne against 42,800 usd at the close yesterday with concerns over low inventory levels continuing to boost prices even though supplies of the metal are picking up.

The LME said today that nickel stocks held in its warehouses increased again, this time by 126 tonnes to 5,496 tonnes. However, on warrant or available stocks are still equivalent to only about a day's worth of consumption.

Tin was down at 14,010 usd a tonne after closing at a new contract high of 14,595 usd yesterday on continued concern over supply from Indonesia, the world's second largest tin producer.

A government crackdown on illegal mining in the country is still hitting production levels.

In other metals, aluminium was down at 2,740 usd a tonne against 2,750 usd at the close yesterday, while zinc edged up to 3,225 usd against 3,200 usd, and lead rose to 1,900 usd against 1,851 usd.

Global Alumina forms JV for alumina refinery project in Guinea

2007-04-14T02:44:00.003-07:00

Global Alumina Corp. (GLA.U.T) has approved agreements to form a joint venture to develop and operate its alumina refinery project in the Republic of Guinea.

The company said that, through its Global Alumina International Ltd. unit, it will sell a two-thirds interest in the project to BHP Billiton Ltd. (BHP), Dubai Aluminium Co., or DUBAL, and Mubadala Development Co. PJSC for total proceeds of about $260 million, payable in four instalments.

The transaction will allow the company to continue implementation of the project in accordance with the investment and concession agreement with the Government of Guinea signed in 2004.

The joint venture will be effected through a share subscription agreement whereby each of BHP Billiton, DUBAL and Mubadala will subscribe for interests in the shares of Guinea Alumina Corp., an indirect unit of Global Alumina. Following closing of the subscription, the ownership structure of Guinea Alumina will be 33.3% Global Alumina, 33.3% BHP Billiton, 25% DUBAL and 8.3% Mubadala.

Global Alumina, Toronto, aims to develop the bauxite resources of Guinea to produce alumina for sale to the global aluminium industry.

Russia's UC Rusal keen on Australian alumina refinery expansion

2007-04-14T02:44:00.001-07:00

Newly created Russian alumina/aluminium giant UC Rusal has identified a 1.1 bln usd-plus alumina expansion opportunity at its partly owned Gladstone alumina refinery in the northeastern Australian state of Queensland as one of its immediate growth opportunities, the Age newspaper reported citing the company.

UC Rusal came into being last night at a signing ceremony in Moscow. It brings together the alumina/aluminium assets of Russian groups Rusal and Sual with those of Switzeland-based commodities trader Glencore, the major shareholder in diversified resources group Xstrata Plc.

The Age quoted UC Rusal chief executive Alexander Bulygin as saying the group's 20 pct stake in

Queensland Alumina's Gladstone alumina refinery had the 'potential to be expanded by 1 mln metric tons a year'.

'We are keen to participate with our partners in any expansion,' the newspaper quoted Bulygin as saying.

Calyon hikes 2007 price forecasts for lead, nickel on continued high demand

2007-03-27T03:30:00.002-07:00

Calyon CMR has made sizeable upgrades to its 2007 forecast prices for lead and nickel on expectations for continued high demand at a time inventories are slumping, it said.

The investment bank has hiked its price outlook on nickel by 12.3 pct to 34,250 usd per tonne and on lead by 26.4 pct to 1,580 usd, citing continued tightness in a market that has seen both metals hitting record highs this year as inventory stocks continue to slide.

A continued increase in stainless steel production, which absorbs the majority of global nickel stocks, is expected to support demand for the metal, which hit an all-time high of 50,875 usd per tonne in March.

The bank said, however, that it sees the extreme shortage of the metal easing slightly as inventory restocking is completed and as non and low-nickel stainless steel grows in popularity.

Calyon also hiked its forecast for lead prices, citing continued drawdowns in LME inventories after a number of suppliers in Asia and Europe ran into delivery difficulties in recent months.

Xstrata's Northfleet refinery declared force majeure on lead deliveries in February, citing a shortfall in feedstock from its Isa mine in Australia.

Chinese lead shipments have also been hit by changes in tax legislation, with Chinese lead exports falling 80.6 pct year-on-year in January, it said.

The bank also upped its forecast for 2007 copper prices by 4.2 pct to 5,450 usd per tonne. Demand from China – a major driver in the metal's recent gains – is seen growing 8 pct year-on-year, although US consumption growth is seen flat on the sluggish housing market.

Higher copper production is likely to weigh slightly on prices going forward, it said. Calyon forecasts 7.1 pct production growth year-on-year, it said, the highest rate for a decade.

Calyon also upgraded its forecast for aluminium prices by 6.7 pct to 2,550 usd per tonne, and cut its outlook on zinc by 0.6 pct to 3,450 usd per tonne.

Copper rises LME stocks fall even further

2007-03-27T03:30:00.001-07:00

Copper rose in London amid another large decline in LME stocks, and as the market remained underpinned by easing worries over US economic growth after the Federal Reserve softened its stance on monetary tightening earlier this week.

At 12.31 pm, LME copper for three-month delivery was at 6,810 usd a tonne against 6,720 usd at the close yesterday.

Copper gained around 1.8 pct yesterday after Chinese customs data for February showed imports of the metal nearly doubled from a year ago, and as worries over US economic growth continued to ease.

The metal made further gains in Asia earlier and has continued higher in London, underpinned by further large falls in inventory held by the London Metal Exchange.

The LME said in a daily report earlier copper stocks in its warehouses fell by 4,125 tonnes to 183,650 tonnes, with only 168,100 tonnes immediately available to the market.

"The reality is that stocks at under 170,000 tonnes are around 3-4 days of consumption and hence tight enough to continue to inspire prices higher in the short term," said JP Morgan analyst Michael Jansen.

Separately, the metal continues to benefit from improved Chinese demand and from speculation a Fed rate cut could be in the offing now that the bank has softened its stance on monetary tightening.

"Further gains (in copper) could come quickly as we believe further short covering from the macro funds will be seen," said UBS Investment Bank analyst Robin Bhar.

He noted yesterday's import data from China, which underlined improving demand from the world's biggest copper consumer, has come at a time when demand in the northern hemisphere is also rising ahead of the second quarter.

The second quarter is traditionally a stronger demand period in the northern hemisphere as countries, especially in western Europe, tend to process higher volumes of metal before they embark on long summer vacations.

Nickel was down at 44,250 usd a tonne against 45,150 usd, giving back some of the gains made yesterday after Chinese customs data showed a near record level of imports into China in February

"Overall, while global stocks are tight and demand remains solid, a significant pullback in the price is not likely but any signs of a moderation in global stainless steel production could have quick and painful ramifications," said Jansen.

Aluminium was flat at 2,780 usd a tonne, with analysts saying the metal will struggle to forge new highs as stockpiles remain plentiful. Today's LME data showed stocks rose another 4,525 tonnes to total 810,475 tonnes.

Other metals were all higher. Zinc was up at 3,242 usd a tonne against 3,200 usd, lead was up at 1,935 usd against 1,925 usd while tin was up at 14,325 usd against 14,050 usd.

Terra Nostra Resources – Scrap copper to play major role in copper production

2007-03-27T03:29:00.003-07:00

Terra Nostra Resources Corporation (OTC BB:TNRO.OB), owner of a 51 percent interest in two Chinese joint venture companies in the strategic copper and stainless steel industries, said Thursday that it predicts no shortage of supply of recycled materials for its production needs.

The Company also indicated that the demand by Asian industry for copper remains fundamentally very strong and subsequently management expects the price of copper to remain around current levels. "This would have a positive effect on our outlook for 2007," said Sun Lui James Po, CEO of Terra Nostra.

"The demand from China, as well as India, for key metals such as copper, steel, and aluminium has not lessened – in fact it has grown," Mr. Po reported, noting that production of copper and stainless steel often uses recycled materials to enable more cost-effective production of the materials. "Not only is it more cost effective, but it also reduces energy consumption and is typically more environmentally friendly," said Mr. Po. As a result, the scrap processing industry in the US alone was recently estimated to be $250 billion annually, according to a report published by the Canadian brokerage firm of Canaccord Adams.

"As the automotive industry in China continues to develop, we believe the scrap industry in China has the potential to rival – and possibly even surpass – that of the United States. This would be of great value to us in that it would provide additional ready supply of scrap materials for our production," Mr. Po said.

Terra Nostra presently has existing and under construction production capacity of 170,000 MT of electrolytic copper, using an optimized ratio of scrap copper and copper concentrate for raw materials, as well as value-added production of copper wire and oxygen-free copper rods. "With the continued rise in the value of copper, as well as strong availability of scrap materials, we believe we are positioned very favorably for the coming year," he said.
About Terra Nostra Resources Corporation

Terra Nostra is one of the leading copper producers in China through its 51% interest in Shandong Terra Nostra Jinpeng Metallurgical Co. Ltd., which has an existing and under construction production capacity of 170,000 MT of electrolytic copper, 20,000 MT of low-oxygen copper, and value-added copper rod and wire facilities. Terra Nostra is also emerging as a leading stainless steel producer in China through its 51% interest in Shandong Quanxin Stainless Steel Co. Ltd., a modern stainless steel production facility that commenced operations in early 2006 with a now expanded 230,000 MT casting mill, and a recently commissioned 150,000 MT rolling mill. The two joint venture companies, with total assets exceeding US$ 200 million and having over 800 employees, are located in the highly industrialized coastal province of Shandong, midway between Beijing and Shanghai.

China's Chiping Xinfa Huaya Alumina increases exposure to Australan bauxite

2007-03-27T03:29:00.001-07:00

China's largest independent alumina-aluminium producer, Chiping Xinfa Huayu Alumina Co Ltd, has increased exposure to the Australian bauxite mining industry by acquiring additional 7.5 pct in Cape Alumina Ltd, to take its stake to 17.5 pct, Cape Alumina said.

Xinfa, which acquired the stake from Anegada Metals Corp Ltd for an undisclosed sum, has also acquired a 2 pct stake in Metallica Minerals Corp Ltd, which owns 40 pct of Cape Alumina.

Last week, Xinfa acquired an initial 10 pct stake for 4.6 mln aud in Cape Alumina which owns an undeveloped bauxite project and exploration licences in the Weipa region in Australia's far north-east where Rio Tinto and Canada's Alcan Ltd have bauxite operations.

As part of the ownership restructuring of Cape Alumina, two US equity fund groups – Resource Capital Funds III LP and IV LP (RCF), have purchased a combined 17.5 pct of Cape Alumina shares from Anegada which previously owned 25 pct of the company.

RCF has also increased its stake in Metallica to 10 pct from 7.8 pct.

Metallica chief executive Andrew Gillies said the restructuring is designed to advance the development of Cape Alumina's Wenlock bauxite project and exploration in the Weipa region

The Wenlock project is estimated to contain 54 mln metric tons of bauxite.

China, Queensland to sign $2.8b aluminium deal

2007-03-27T03:28:00.000-07:00

A $2.8 billion deal with China to mine bauxite and build an aluminium smelter in Queensland was the largest foreign investment in the state's history, Acting Premier Anna Bligh says.

Ms Bligh and the Chinese Vice-Premier, Zen Peiyan, are set to sign the agreement with the Aluminium Corporation of China (Chalco) on the rights to mine the Aurukun bauxite resource on Cape York Peninsula.

The company is the world's second biggest aluminium producer and has won an 18-month bidding process.

"This is a multi-billion dollar milestone in the relationship between Queensland and China," Ms Bligh said.

"China is an economic powerhouse that is shaping the world economy and this agreement is an enormous vote of confidence in our ability to meet their booming demand for resources."

Ms Bligh said Queensland was providing $300 million in funding for common infrastructure, including a bauxite loading facility and road and airstrip upgrades.

The upgrades were expected to benefit existing miners such as Rio Tinto Aluminium and future mining operations in the region.

Chalco is now in the final stages of reaching an agreement with the Wik Aboriginal people of the Aurukun region.

When that agreement has been reached, the company will embark on a two-year, $40 million feasibility study and environmental impact study for the mine and a $2.1 billion refinery.

Annual output from the mine was expected to be 6.4 million tonnes of bauxite and 2.1 million tonnes of aluminium from the refinery.

Chalco is looking at three sites for the refinery in Bowen, Townsville and Gladstone.

A decision on the site was expected some time this year.

Ms Bligh said the mine will create 700 construction jobs and more than 100 full time positions.

The refinery was expected to provide 1,600 jobs during construction and 500 workers when operational.

China copper concentrate imports up 34.9% in February

2007-03-22T22:40:00.001-07:00

China's copper concentrate imports rose 34.9% on year in February to 392,366 metric tons, the General Administration of Customs said Thursday.

Refined copper imports in February rose 177.9% to 148,679 tons.

In January-February, copper concentrate imports totaled 721,845 tons, up 23% on year, while refined copper imports totaled 280,530 tons, up 125.8% on year.

China is a large importer of copper concentrate in the world, sourcing most of its supplies from South America, Mongolia and Australia.

The following are tables of import and export data for copper, nickel, aluminium, alumina, bauxite, lead, zinc, tin and antimony as well as the leading importing and exporting countries from Jan. 1 to Feb. 28. The chart includes leading importing and exporting countries, origins of imports and destinations for exports. (All figures in metric tons unless otherwise stated.)

China leads the world in nonferrous output for 5 years: CNMIA

2007-03-22T22:39:00.002-07:00

China has led the world in nonferrous metals output for five years in a row, national news agency Xinhua reported Thursday, quoting sources with the China Nonferrous Metals Industry Association (CNMIA).

The country's output of 10 main nonferrous metals, including copper, aluminium, nickel, lead, zinc and magnesium, surged 17.48% year on year to 19.17 million mt in 2006.

China produced 3 million mt of copper, 9.35 million mt of electrolytic aluminium, 2.74 million mt of lead and 3.15 million mt of zinc in 2006.

Output of nine nonferrous metals – excluding nickel – topped the world.

Profits of the country's main nonferrous metals companies soared 99.5% to Yuan 110 billion ($14.1 billion) in 2006.

In 2007, the country's nonferrous metals output will increase rapidly, with prices remaining at a high level due to rising demand, said Kang Yi, the CNMIA chairman.

Copper rises as Chinese imports surge, LME stocks fall

2007-03-22T22:39:00.001-07:00

Copper rose, underpinned by higher Chinese imports and a fall in stocks stored in LME warehouses.

China's refined copper imports rose nearly 120 pct to 148,679 tonnes in February – the highest level in two years – compared with the same month a year ago.

At 12.29 pm, LME copper for 3 month delivery was up at 6,760 usd a tonne against 6,609 usd at the close yesterday.

'Copper has a base of fundamental reasoning to its strength with buying continuing in China where imports are increasing rapidly over last year's levels,' said Alex Heath, head of the base metals desk at RBC Capital Markets.

Stocks of the metal fell 1,525 tonnes to 187,775 tonnes today, reported the LME in a daily report.

Strong Chinese imports, which boasts the world's fastest growing economy, combined with the fast-approaching seasonally busier second quarter paint a strong underlying picture for copper, said Standard Bank analyst, Tariq Salaria.

He explained demand in the second quarter is traditionally stronger as Western European countries tend to process higher volumes of metal before they embark on long summer vacations.

In the longer term, Salaria added: 'In the first half of the year, the market will be much closer to balance and the low level of stocks mean that it remains vulnerable to supply disruptions.'

Further, copper and indeed all base metals were supported by stronger equity markets worldwide after yesterday's US Federal Reserve meeting continued to boost sentiment.

The US Federal Reserve softened its tone, turning away slightly from its stance towards tightening monetary policy and in turn fuelling hopes that key US interest rates might be heading lower.

Commodity markets have become linked to equities after a global equity sell-off at the end of February, amid fears that demand might be dented.

However, RBC's Heath argued that 'perhaps more pertinent (in lifting prices) is the gradual realisation by many that the base metals fundamentals remain just too finely balanced'.

He added tight fundamentals suggest the impact of any disruption supplies would be exaggerated.

In other metals, nickel was up at 44,500 usd from 43,855 usd yesterday, but still off of its recent all-time high of 48,500 usd set last Friday.

Prices are widely anticipated to hit the 50,000 usd mark as stocks remain critically low and amid strong demand from the stainless steel industry – which accounts for 70 pct of nickel consumption. Current stocks available to the market are worth less than a day's worth of global consumption.

Aluminium was down at 2,225 usd from 2,750 usd per tonne at yesterday's close. Lead was up at 1,924 usd against 1,917 usd, tin was up at 14,000 usd against 13,875 while zinc was also up at 3,200 usd against 3,120 usd per tonne at yesterday's close.

Prudential sees share price falls ahead for Aloca, Alcan on more competition, costs

2007-03-22T22:38:00.002-07:00

Prudential Equity Group said Wednesday increased Chinese output and a high cost structure for aluminium producers Alcoa Inc. and Alcan Inc. could hurt the companies' stock performance in 2007.

Shares of Alcoa gave up 22 cents to close at $33.85 on the New York Stock Exchange, while Canadian rival Alcan rose 8 cents to finish at $53.20. Century Aluminium Co. added 46 cents to end at $45.97 on the Nasdaq Stock Market.

Analyst John C. Tumazos cut his rating on the industry to "Unfavorable" from "Favorable." On Tuesday, the International Aluminium Institute said China output rose 39 percent in January, up from 35 percent as previously thought, and February output grew more than 40 percent.

Tumazos slashed his rating on Alcan to "Underweight" from "Overweight" and trimmed his target price to $48 from $50. He also cut Alcoa to "Neutral Weight" from "Overweight" and lowered his target price to $38 from 441.

The analyst lifted his 2007 output expectations for China by 1.4 million metric tons to a total of 12.4 metric tons. That's up from 9.35 million metric tons produced in the country in 2006, he noted.

Manufacturing in China is still rising, while U.S. manufacturing – which has in the past used a lot of aluminium – is declining.

In addition, both Alcan and Alcoa are expected to see higher costs ahead due to the euro's appreciation and high raw material and transportation costs, Tumazos wrote in a note to clients. Meanwhile, aluminium output in other areas of the world, including the Congo region, Middle East and Venezuela, is on the rise.

Base metals complex rises on fund buying

2007-03-22T22:38:00.001-07:00

London Metal Exchange base metals jumped on fund buying late Thursday, but profit-taking and weekend position squaring may yet send prices lower, said traders.

Three-month copper jumped to a fresh 2007 high of $6,784.50 a metric ton, before retreating to a PM kerb of $6,720/ton.

Fund buying late Thursday helped copper and the rest of the base metals complex extend its recent strength, said traders. Moreover, the LME complex got a boost from strength in oil and gold prices, said an LME trader in London.

Copper was well supported early Thursday on gains made after dovish comments by the U.S. Federal Reserve on the state of the economy boosted sentiment.

News from China that the country's copper concentrate imports rose 34.9% on year in February to 392,366 tons, while refined copper imports in February more than doubled to 148,679 tons, also provided strong underlying price support.

Meanwhile, three-month nickel retraced its recent losses, pushing up 3% to a PM kerb of $45,150/ton from Wednesday on short-covering.

News of possible supply-side disruptions to nickel stocks from the Western Australian port of Esperance also added to positive market sentiment.

Esperance is the largest nickel-concentrates exporting port in the southern hemisphere and serves Australia's principal nickel-mining region. It shipped 194,136 metric tons of nickel concentrate in 2006.

Traders also pointed to news overnight that Chinese demand for nickel may rise 20% in 2007 as adding to upside price momentum.

In other metals, three-month zinc posted strong gains, rising over 2% to a PM kerb of $3,200/ton from Wednesday. However, traders noted there was no fundamentals news to drive this rise, but was instead the result of programmed technical activity.

In other news, the LME said Thursday it has appointed a subcommittee to design and execute a mechanism for the allocation of new shares in the exchange.

The subcommittee is expected to take four months to design and execute the mechanism, which will allow for the allotment of up to 200,000 B shares in the LME.

Analysts: Alcoa takeover bid unlikely

2007-02-15T01:57:00.001-08:00

Potential takeover bids of Alcoa Inc. by one of two Australian-based companies reportedly considering such a move were unlikely because of the U.S. aluminium producer's company dynamics, cost factors and increasing Chinese competition, analysts said Wednesday.

BHP Billiton Ltd., the world's largest mining company, and Rio Tinto PLC, the world's second-largest iron ore producer, declined to comment on the takeover talk, sparked Tuesday by an unsourced report in the Times newspaper in London.

The report said the Melbourne-based mining companies were considering offers of up to $40 billion (euro31 billion) bid for the U.S. aluminium giant. Alcoa shares rose 6.38 percent to close at $35 Tuesday on the New York Stock Exchange after rising as high as $36.05 earlier in the session.

"We don't comment on market rumors and speculation," said Ian Head, a spokesman for Rio Tinto.

Analysts said they doubted a bid was pending, noting that BHP or Rio Tinto are focused more on the mining and raw materials end of the business than "downstream" industries like the manufacture of aerospace equipment and auto parts, which Alcoa emphasizes.

"I think the downstream assets make it all too hard to be honest _ I don't put any credence in these rumors," said Morgan Stanley analyst Craig Campbell.

BHP Billiton shares rose 0.8 percent to 28.79 Australian dollars ($22.44) in trading Wednesday in Australia, while Rio Tinto gained 2.3 percent to A$77.20 ($60.18).

Stock Resource analyst Steve Bartrop said BHP's existing Australian aluminium assets could see the miner face antitrust issues if it made a bid for Alcoa, based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

Bartrop said there is little benefit for BHP in investing in Alcoa's U.S. aluminium smelting operations when it has its own low cost operations in Mozambique, South Africa and Brazil.

"It doesn't make much sense to buy higher cost smelters in the U.S. even with the proximity to market," he said.

Analysts at the U.K-based independent investment banking and brokering group, Numis, said the miners may have considered Alcoa in the past, but that such a bid was now doubtful.

"We are not convinced the value case relative to other options (organic, buybacks or other mergers and acquisitions) will be easy to make and, on balance, believe it is unlikely," it said in a statement.

Global investment bank UBS said both miners have the cash and flexibility to launch a takeover, but that the "timing could be questionable," with China providing increasing competition in aluminium production.

Meanwhile, Australia's Alumina Ltd. said Wednesday it is not aware of any information about a possible takeover of U.S.-based partner Alcoa. Alumina owns 40 percent of the Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals joint venture in which Alcoa holds the remaining controlling stake.

Russia gives final approval to creation of world's largest aluminium producer

2007-02-15T01:56:00.000-08:00

Russia's Anti-Monopoly Service gave final approval to a three-way merger that would create the world's biggest aluminium producer, the companies involved in the deal said on Wednesday, Feb. 14.

At the start of the month EU regulators also cleared the deal, which will see Russia's biggest aluminium producer, Rusal, absorb rival SUAL and the alumina assets of Swiss-based commodities trader Glencore.

The Federal Anti-Monopoly Service agreed to the merger in principle in January, and analysts had predicted that the Russian approval would be a formality.
"Today's announcement ... is of great significance, supporting the creation of Russia's first transnational corporation and the new leader of the global aluminium industry," Rusal CEO Alexander Bulygin said in a statement released jointly with the other two companies. "We are now ready to round off the merger and plan to close the deal in the near future," he was quoted by the Associated Press as saying.

The company had said earlier that it expected the deal to close in April. Approval for the tie-up had also been granted by the anti-monopoly authorities of Ukraine, Montenegro and Turkey, the statement said. Bulgarian regulators must still give their approval for the merger.

The European Commission had said the deal would not significantly impede competition in Europe because the new company would continue to face "effective" rivalry.

Copper edges down as stocks rise but other metals climb

2007-02-15T01:55:00.002-08:00

Copper retraced yesterday's strong gains as LME stocks edged higher, although prices continued to be underpinned by strong demand levels.

Copper stocks were up by 1,650 tonnes to 214,900 tonnes, said daily LME inventory data.

At 2.01 pm, LME copper for three-month delivery was down at 5,730 usd a tonne having risen 279 usd to settle at 5,749 yesterday.

"Fund buying is coming back in and copper is rising," said Standard Bank analyst Mike Skinner, adding that today's dip was "to be expected" because of profit taking.

While copper was moderately lower, all of the other base metals' prices were higher.

"Given the strong tone in the rest of the group, we don't think (copper)prices will stay down for long," said Man Financial analyst Ed Meir.

Aluminium prices jumped again as market players mulled supply threats from Guinea, West Africa, where worker unions resumed strike action.

The renewed strike disrupted bauxite mining, and bauxite and alumina shipments by Guinea, the world's leading exporter of the ore.

Aluminium was up at 2,845 usd a tonne against 2,820 usd at the close yesterday.

In other metals, tin extended gains from Monday after Indonesian tin producing company PT Koba Tin suspended shipments from Bangka, Indonesia, following an investigation into alleged illegal mining.

Tin was up at 12,770 usd a tonne against 12,595 usd at the close yesterday.

Lead was up at 1,700 usd a tonne against 1,675 usd at the close yesterday. Zinc was up at 3,225 usd against 3,220 usd while nickel rose to 37,350 usd against 36,000 usd.

Bosai Minerals Group buys controlling interest in major Guyanese bauxite mine

2007-02-15T01:55:00.001-08:00

A private Chinese company has bought a controlling interest in a major Guyanese bauxite mine, the South American nation's government announced Wednesday.

Bosai Minerals Group, a leading producer of calcined bauxite, bought Toronto-based IAMGold's stake in Omai Bauxite Mining Inc., which holds bauxite deposits in Linden, some 70 miles (112 kilometers) south of Georgetown.

Bosai, based in the western Chinese city of Chongqing, now controls 70 percent of the company, while Guyana's government holds 30 percent.

Calcined bauxite is a key material in aluminium used in aircraft, industrial construction and kitchen utensils.

IAMGold Corp., a Canadian gold producer, said in December that it had agreed to sell its interests in the Guyanese bauxite mine to Bosai for US$46 million (euro35 million), and that the Chinese company agreed to assume US$18 million (euro13.6 million) in third-party debt.

Norman McLean, a spokesman for IAMGold, said Wednesday that the Canadian firm "prefers to concentrate on gold mining. Shareholders were not happy with our involvement with bauxite."

LME nickel, tin extend gains; Copper down

2007-02-15T01:54:00.000-08:00

London Metal Exchange nickel took center stage Wednesday rising nearly 5% driven by falling inventories, but analysts say they will keep a close watch on whether Asia succumbs to major bouts of profit-taking.

Three-month nickel reached a more than one-week-old high at $37,800 a metric ton Wednesday triggered by an increase in canceled warrants and falling stock levels, said Michael Skinner of Standard Bank in London.

Canceled warrants – or material accounted for and to be drawn down at a later date – soared to 54% Wednesday from Tuesday's 15%, leaving just 1,806 tons available to the market. This is less than half a day's worth of global nickel consumption.

An owner of metal in LME warehouses holds a warrant. Some traders suggest that nickel warrants are tightly held by one particular market participant. This player can move its metal on and off warrant in warehouses and have some control over nickel stocks – and prices – as a result.

Profit-taking at the top of the price ranges is to be expected, said Skinner, but "we haven't seen as much selling overnight in Asia" and will have to see whether this continues.

Meanwhile, three-month aluminium prices rose roughly 1% to a PM kerb of $2,828/ton on technical buying as political uncertainty in Guinea continued.

Guinea is a leading producer of bauxite, an essential component in producing aluminium.

Guinean President Lansana Conte has imposed martial law until Feb. 23 after days of violent protests. The demonstrations were triggered over the weekend following Conte's appointment of a close ally from his Cabinet as prime minister, a move the opposition said sidestepped a power-sharing agreement.

However, an increase in aluminium stocks by 2,925 tons to 759,050 tons Wednesday capped gains. Aluminium inventories have climbed roughly 9% since the start of 2007.

In other metals, three-month copper traded down 0.5% to a PM kerb of $5,720/ton driven by a large increase in copper stocks by 1,650 tons Wednesday to 214,900 tons. Copper inventories have increased roughly 11% since the start of 2007.

Oil price weakness as well as easing strength in the euro added to copper price pressure.

Three-month zinc suddenly jumped in afternoon trade due to an erroneous trade by one participant, triggering stops and pushing prices sharply higher, according to one LME broker. Zinc rose roughly 2% to a PM kerb of $3,310/ton from Tuesday.

Earlier Wednesday, three-month tin prices hit a new record high of $12,800/ton before retreating modestly to a PM kerb of $12,695/ton.

"The main driver for prices continues to be uncertainty on the supply side stemming from Indonesia's Bangka island," said Kevin Norrish of Barclays Capital.

Indonesia recently shutdown its private mining and smelting operations on Bangka island, where the country's largest tin reserve is located. Earlier this week, PT Koba Tin declared force majeure to its tin customers on shipments and deliveries of the metal.

Refractories – Refractory Aggregates

2007-02-10T02:16:00.002-08:00

Potentially any aggregate may be used in a monolithic refractory formulation. They are selected based upon their stability at the temperature of application, corrosion resistance and mechanical strength.
Temperature Limits

As a guide, Table 1 shows the temperature limits of operation for castables with various aggregates.

Table 1. Upper limits of service temperatures for various aggregates (CAC=Calcium aluminate cement).

Cement type

% Al2O3

Aggregate

Approx. temperature limit (°C)

Heat resistant concretes

Grey CAC

40

Granite/basalt

700-800

Grey CAC

40

Emery

1000

Grey CAC

40

AlagTM

1100

Brown CAC

50

Olivine

1200

Dense refractory concrete

Grey CAC

40

Chamotte

1300

Brown CAC

50-55

Molochite

1400

White CAC

70

Molochite

1450

Grey CAC

40

Sillimanite or gibbsite

1350

Brown CAC

50-55

“ “

1450

White CAC

70

“ “

1550

Grey CAC

40

Brown fused alumina

1400

Brown CAC

50-55

“ “

1550

White CAC

70

“ “

1650

White CAC

80

“ “

1750

White CAC

70

White fused alumina

1800

White CAC

80

“ “

1850

White CAC

70

Tabular alumina

1800

White CAC

80

“ “

1900

Thermally insulating concretes

Grey CAC

40

Pumice, diatomite

900

Grey CAC

40

Vermiculite, perlite

1000

Grey CAC

40

LytagTM, LecaTM

1100

Brown CAC

50

Expanded chamotte

1300

White CAC

70

Bubble alumina

1700

White CAC

80

Bubble alumina

1800

Table 2. Pyrometric cone equivalent of calcium aluminate cement.

Types of CAC

Al2O3/CaO

PCE (°C)

Grey CAC

1.15

1270-1290

Brown CAC

1.40

1430-1450

White CAC

2.50

1590-1620

White CAC

4.70

1770-1810
Refractory Aggregates
Bauxite

Bauxite is an ore which principally consists of either Boehmite (a monohydrate of alumina, Al2O3.H2O) or Gibbsite (alumina trihydrate, Al2O3.3H2O.). Raw bauxite may contain other impurities such as titania, silica and ferrous oxide. Refractory grade bauxite has a high alumina and low iron content. Most of the material mined in Europe has a higher proportion of Boehmite whereas bauxites mined in Asia and South America have high proportions of Gibbsite. The Bayer is used to process bauxite to produce higher grades of alumina (which can be used in higher temperature applications).

Bauxite used in refractory applications is generally calcined in a rotary kiln producing a material mainly consisting of corundum (alpha-Al2O3), mullite (3Al2O3.2SiO2) and a small amount of a glassy phase.
Calcined and Sintered Alumina

Calcined aluminas are produced from bauxite processed via the Bayer process. The resulting material has very low levels of impurities. Calcined alumina is made from heating bayerite (Al(OH)3) in a rotary kiln. Calcined aluminas are stable to very high temperatures.

Sintered alumina is manufactured by sintering calcined alumina at 1,800°C in a rotary kiln. Subsequently to this it is crushed and classified according to grain size.
Fused Alumina

Fusing aluminous raw materials electrically in an electric arc furnace can produce fused alumina. The fused product is then cooled into ingots, crushed and then classified. There are two types of fused alumina - brown and white. Brown fused alumina is manufactured from bauxite. Its impurities are reduced to precipitate as Fe-Si-Ti system iron alloys, but some of the titanium forms a solid solution with alumina. This causes the brown colour of the material. Fused alumina has a very high degree of toughness and is frequently used as a grinding material. White fused alumina is formed from calcined alumina. The only impurity in fused alumina is sodium, which is present in the form of alpha-alumina. Fused alumina, with its perfect crystallisation is difficult to sinter. It is inactive and does not readily react with other raw materials. Fused aluminas tend to be used in refractories which are exposed to very severe conditions.
Fused Bubble Alumina

Fused bubble alumina is used in high temperature insulating monolithic refractories. Bubble alumina is made by blowing a stream of high-pressure air into molten alumina. This forms bubbles in the material. The incomplete bubbles are then separated.
Spinel

Spinels which are used in refractories are generally synthesised from bivalent and trivalent oxides, mixed at equal mole ratios forming materials of the general formula XY2O4. A typical refractory spinel product is the double oxide of magnesia and alumina (MgAl2O4). Further examples of spinels are provided in table 3.

Table 3. Examples of spinels

Aluminate

Chromite

Ferrite

MgO.Al2O3

ZnO.Cr2O3

ZnO.Fe2O3

FeO.Al2O3

MgO.Cr2O3

MgO.Fe2O3

MnO.Al2O3

FeO.Cr2O3

FeO.Fe2O3

ZnO.Al2O3

MnO.Cr2O3

MnO.Fe2O3

NiO.Al2O3

NiO.Cr2O3

NiO.Fe2O3

Both spinel (Mg.Al2O3) and dichromite (MgO.Cr2O3) are used in refractory castable formulations. Their respective melting points are 2135°C and 2350°C. Spinel is more neutral at high temperature than alumina and its corrosion resistance against basic slags is high. Against Fe2O3 the Al3+ may be substituted by Fe3+ causing corrosion. Spinel’s thermal conductivity and coefficient of thermal expansion is smaller than that of magnesia and it has good resistance to spalling.
Magnesia

Magnesia clinker is basic, and it has high corrosion resistance to basic slags. It has a high thermal conductivity and a large coefficient of thermal expansion. Calcining magnesite (MgCO3) in a rotary kiln produces magnesia clinker. Iron oxide forms a solid solution with periclase (MgO) which acts as a sintering aid. Another magnesia raw material is fused magnesia, which is obtained by electrically fusing seawater magnesia clinker. Magnesia has a tendency to react with water to form magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2), therefore magnesia based castables must be stored carefully and the contact with steam avoided.
Dolomite

Dolomite is a double salt of CaCO3 and MgCO3. Mixtures within the CaO.MgO system do not melt below 2300°C and are highly refractory. Dolomite refractories are used in steel making. Dolomite shows excellent corrosion resistance to basic slags.
Silicon Carbide

Silicon carbide is made by heating silica sand and petroleum coke packed around electrodes in an electric resistance furnace to above 2200°C. This material is very resistant to abrasion and to corrosion with a molten slag. It also has excellent resistance to thermal spalling. However as it is a carbide, it will oxidise readily. With respect to other refractory aggregates silicon carbide has a fairly high conductivity.
Chamotte

Is made from clay, which is sintered, to the point of no further shrinkage. Typically to make a chamotte, raw clay is extruded then fired in either a tunnel or rotary kiln. The main phase in chamotte at high temperatures is mullite. Some chamottes are also made from shale clays, which are calcined in either a shaft or rotary kiln.
Vermiculite

Vermiculite is clay mineral not too dissimilar to mica. It has a three layered structure with a MgO.6H2O layer between sheets. When vermiculite is heated to a temperature of around 350°C it begins to shrink. At above 400°C the combined water in the material is released and it exfoliates. In this process vermiculite will swell to 10-20 times its original volume. Exfoliated vermiculite is fairly poor in strength but it has a very low thermal conductivity making it an excellent insulating material. Vermiculite is commonly used in insulating castables.

Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels – Alloys, Properties, Fabrication Processes, Supplier Data by aalco

2007-02-10T02:16:00.001-08:00

Precipitation hardening stainless steels are chromium and nickel containing steels that provide an optimum combination of the properties of martensitic and austenitic grades. Like martensitic grades, they are known for their ability to gain high strength through heat treatment and they also have the corrosion resistance of austenitic stainless steel.

The high tensile strengths of precipitation hardening stainless steels come after a heat treatment process that leads to precipitation hardening of a martensitic or austenitic matrix. Hardening is achieved through the addition of one or more of the elements Copper, Aluminium, Titanium, Niobium, and Molybdenum.

The most well known precipitation hardening steel is 17-4 PH. The name comes from the additions 17% Chromium and 4% Nickel. It also contains 4% Copper and 0.3% Niobium. 17-4 PH is also known as stainless steel grade 630.

The advantage of precipitation hardening steels is that they can be supplied in a “solution treated” condition, which is readily machineable. After machining or another fabrication method, a single, low temperature heat treatment can be applied to increase the strength of the steel. This is known as ageing or age-hardening. As it is carried out at low temperature, the component undergoes no distortion.
Characterisation

Precipitation hardening steels are characterised into one of three groups based on their final microstructures after heat treatment. The three types are: martensitic (e.g. 17-4 PH), semi-austenitic (e.g. 17-7 PH) and austenitic (e.g. A-286).
Martensitic Alloys

Martensitic precipitation hardening stainless steels have a predominantly austenitic structure at annealing temperatures of around 1040 to 1065°C. Upon cooling to room temperature, they undergo a transformation that changes the austenite to martensite.
Semi-austenitic Alloys

Unlike martensitic precipitation hardening steels, annealed semi-austenitic precipitation hardening steels are soft enough to be cold worked. Semi-austenitc steels retain their austenitic structure at room temperature but will form martensite at very low temperatures.
Austenitic Alloys

Austenitic precipitation hardening steels retain their austenitic structure after annealing and hardening by ageing. At the annealing temperature of 1095 to 1120°C the precipitation hardening phase is soluble. It remains in solution during rapid cooling. When reheated to 650 to 760°C, precipitation occurs. This increases the hardness and strength of the material. Hardness remains lower than that for martensitic or semi-austenitic precipitation hardening steels. Austenitic alloys remain nonmagnetic.
Properties
Strength

Yield strengths for precipitation-hardening stainless steels are 515 to 1415 MPa. Tensile strengths range from 860 to 1520 MPa. Elongations are 1 to 25%. Cold working before ageing can be used to facilitate even higher strengths.
Heat Treatment

The key to the properties of precipitation hardening stainless steels lies in heat treatment.

After solution treatment or annealing of precipitation hardening stainless steels, a single low temperature “age hardening” stage is employed to achieve the required properties. As this treatment is carried out at a low temperature, no distortion occurs and there is only superficial discolouration. During the hardening process a slight decrease in size takes place. This shrinking is approximately 0.05% for condition H900 and 0.10% for H1150.

Typical mechanical properties achieved for 17-4 PH after solution treating and age hardening are given in the following table. Condition designations are given by the age hardening temperature in °F.

Table 1. Mechanical property ranges after solution treating and age hardening

Cond.

Hardening Temp and time

Hardness (Rockwell C)

Tensile Strength (MPa)

A

Annealed

36

1100

H900

482°C, 1 hour

44

1310

H925

496°C, 4 hours

42

1170-1320

H1025

552°C, 4 hours

38

1070-1220

H1075

580°C, 4 hours

36

1000-1150

H1100

593°C, 4 hours

35

970-1120

H1150

621°C, 4 hours

33

930-1080
Typical Chemical Composition

Table 2. Typical chemical composition for stainless steel alloy 17-4PH

17-4 PH

C

0.07%

Mn

1.00%

Si

1.00%

P

0.04%

S

0.03%

Cr

17.0%

Ni

4.0%

Cu

4.0%

Nb+Ta

0.30%
Typical Mechanical Properties

Table 3. Typical mechanical properties for stainless steel alloy 17-4PH

Grade 17-4PH

Annealed

Cond 900

Cond 1150

Tensile Strength (MPa)

1100

1310

930

Elongation A5 (%)

15

10

16

Proof Stress 0.2% (MPa)

1000

1170

724

Elongation A5 (%)

15

10

16
Typical Physical Properties

Table 4. Typical physical properties for stainless steel alloy 17-4PH

Property

Value

Density

7.75 g/cm3

Melting Point

°C

Modulus of Elasticity

196 GPa

Electrical Resistivity

0.080x10-6 Ω.m

Thermal Conductivity

18.4 W/m.K at 100°C

Thermal Expansion

10.8x10-6 /K at 100°C
Alloy Designations

Stainless steel 17-4 PH also corresponds to a number of following standard designations and specifications.

Table 5. Alternate designations for stainless steel alloy 17-4PH

Euronorm

UNS

BS

En

Grade

1.4542

S17400

-

-

630

Corrosion Resistance

Precipitation hardening stainless steels have moderate to good corrosion resistance in a range of environments. They have a better combination of strength and corrosion resistance than when compared with the heat treatable 400 series martensitic alloys. Corrosion resistance is similar to that found in grade 304 stainless steel.

In warm chloride environments, 17-4 PH is susceptible to pitting and crevice corrosion. When aged at 550°C or higher, 17-4 PH is highly resistant to stress corrosion cracking. Better stress corrosion cracking resistance comes with higher ageing temperatures.

Corrosion resistance is low in the solution treated (annealed) condition and it should not be used before heat treatment.
Heat Resistance

17-4 PH has good oxidation resistance. In order to avoid reduction in mechanical properties, it should not be used over its precipitation hardening temperature. Prolonged exposure to 370-480°C should be avoided if ambient temperature toughness is critical.
Fabrication

Fabrication of all stainless steels should be done only with tools dedicated to stainless steel materials or tooling and work surfaces must be thoroughly cleaned before use. These precautions are necessary to avoid cross contamination of stainless steel by easily corroded metals that may discolour the surface of the fabricated product.
Cold Working

Cold forming such as rolling, bending and hydroforming can be performed on 17-4PH but only in the fully annealed condition. After cold working, stress corrosion resistance is improved by re-ageing at the precipitation hardening temperature.
Hot Working

Hot working of 17-4 PH should be performed at 950°-1200°C. After hot working, full heat treatment is required. This involves annealing and cooling to room temperature or lower. Then the component needs to be precipitation hardened to achieve the required mechanical properties.
Machinability

In the annealed condition, 17-4 PH has good machinability, similar to that of 304 stainless steel. After hardening heat treatment, machining is difficult but possible.

Carbide or high speed steel tools are normally used with standard lubrication. When strict tolerance limits are required, the dimensional changes due to heat treatment must be taken into account
Welding

Precipitation hardening steels can be readily welded using procedures similar to those used for the 300 series of stainless steels.

Grade 17-4 PH can be successfully welded without preheating. Heat treating after welding can be used to give the weld metal the same properties as for the parent metal. The recommended grade of filler rods for welding 17-4 PH is 17-7 PH.
Applications

Due to the high strength of precipitation hardening stainless steels, most applications are in aerospace and other high-technology industries.

Applications include:

· Gears

· Valves and other engine components

· High strength shafts

· Turbine blades

· Moulding dies

· Nuclear waste casks

Polyurethanes – What Goes Into PUs?

2007-02-10T02:15:00.001-08:00

A PU is made by mixing together the ingredient chemicals (isocyanate and polyol see later) in predetermined proportions, which then react to form the polymer.

Uniquely, PUs utilise simultaneous polymerisation and shaping of the part.

The production of consistent end products depends on mixing, in precise ratio, the ingredient chemicals and maintenance of the appropriate processing temperatures. As the liquid isocyanate and polyol react to form the PU, the liquid mix becomes increasingly viscous eventually forming a solid mass. The reaction is exothermic and therefore heat is involved.

Other ingredients will be included in the polyol blend, for example the catalyst which controls the rate at which the liquid mixture reacts to become solid.

There are no hard and fast rules for obtaining the optimum PU end product, success is due to good formulation selection with well chosen and appropriate processing parameters and mould geometry. The process by which liquid polymers are converted to elastomeric or glassy solids is fundamental to the manufacture of PU products.
Selection of a Polyurethane

There are a number of steps:

Consider the requirements which the application will demand of the PU with respect to chemical and physical properties.

Based upon an understanding of what controls these properties select a few candidate PU systems. The properties of a PU are largely controlled by the chemical nature of the system and how it is processed so it is prudent to consult specialist suppliers and processors at this stage.

Establish that the converter can process the proposed system on existing plant. The important processing characteristics of the system will include viscosity, pot life, reactive mix ratio control, demould time and process temperature.

Undertake preliminary tests, make prototypes, conduct field trials and obtain customer approval.
Raw Materials
lsocyanates

Many commercial grades of isocyanates used for making PUs are aromatic in nature. Each isocyanate will give different properties to the end product, requiring different curing systems and, in most cases, different processing systems. An important property of an isocyanate is its functionality, i.e. the number of isocyanate groups (-NCO) per molecule. For cross linked PU applications the average functionality of the isocyanate is usually a little over two. The higher functionality isocyanates are used for special applications. When a di-functional isocyanate is used with a di-functional polyol a long linear PU molecule for elastomeric applications is formed. The common isocyanates used to make PUs are shown in figure 1.

Figure 1. Typical isocyanates

Many PU products, such as flexible foams, are made with toluene diisocyanate (TDI).

The other main isocyanate used is methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI), the most widely used MDI product is `Crude MDI' with a functionality of about 2.8.

A monomeric derivative of MDI, called 'Pure MDI', with a functionality of 2 can be distilled from Crude MDI. `Pure MDI' is a solid at ambient temperatures and is usually modified to a liquid form for ease of handling.

The modified isocyanates and isocyanate pre-polymers with special reactivity characteristics are used when it is impractical to use the more conventional isocyanates. Such derivatives are formed from the reaction of the isocyanate with compounds such as amines, diols or triols.
Polyols

There are two main types of polyols used in the PU industry, polyethers and polyesters. Typical polyols used are shown in figure 2.

Figure 2. Typical polyols.
Polyethers

The more widely used polyethers have a relatively low molecular weight in the range of 500 to 3000 and are manufactured from propylene oxide (PO) and ethylene oxide (EO).

PO is the major constituent of the polyol, whereas EO is only included in small amounts to modify the properties of the polyol.

The functionality of the polyether polyol (number of active hydroxyl groups per molecule) can be varied and is normally 2 for elastomers, approximately 3 for flexible foams and up to 6 or more for rigid foams.
Polyesters

The polyester polyols are typically produced by the condensation reaction of a diol such as ethylene glycol with a dicarboxylic acid.

Polyester polyols tend to be more expensive, are usually more viscous and difficult to handle but develop PUs with superior tensile, abrasion, flexing and oil resistance properties. Consequently they are used to make PUs for more demanding applications.

A disadvantage of polyester based PUs is their lower hydrolysis resistance.
Pre polymers

In a pre polymer system, the polyol and isocyanate (either a polyester or a polyether) are reacted to give a pre polymer that may be either a liquid or a waxy solid.

The reactant ratios used ensure the pre polymer contains isocyanate groups at the chain ends. The pre polymer can, when required, be chain extended to give a high molecular weight cross linked product.
Common Additives
Catalysts

Catalysts have a key role in PU production being required to maintain a balance between the reaction of the isocyanate and polyol.

The combination of very complex PU chemistry and diverse processing and moulding conditions make great demands of the catalyst. Its main function is to exploit the diverse reactions to create a product with the desired properties.

There are two main classes of catalyst used in PU production.

Organometallics are used to accelerate the reaction and formation of urethane linkages and hence promote rapid curing.

The most popular organometallic catalysts are tinbutyltin dilaurate and stannous octoate. Tin catalysts are used to catalyse micro cellular elastomers and reaction injected moulded (RIM) systems.

Amines are the other major class of catalysts widely used in the making of PU foams. Some amine catalysts promote crosslinking whilst others assist in controlling the foam's cell structure.
Chain Extenders

Chain extenders are reactive low molecular weight di-functional compounds such as hydroxyl amines, glycols or diamines and are used to influence the end properties of the PU.

The chain-extender reacts with the isocyanate to affect the hard/soft segment relationship and therefore the modulus and glass transition temperature (Tg) of the polymer. The Tg provides a measure of the polymer's softening point and some indication of the safe upper limit of its working temperature range.
Blowing Agents

Cellular or foamed PUs are manufactured by using blowing agents to form gas bubbles in the reaction mixture as it polymerises. They are usually low boiling point liquids which are volatilised by the heat generated by the exothermic reaction between the isocyanate and polyol.

Rigid foams yield sufficient exothermic heat from the reaction to allow foam expansion in association with the blowing agent.

Flexible PU foams are usually blown by the C02 generated by the reaction of water and isocyanate (or in association with methylene chloride). Blowing of the foam can also be accomplished by the direct injection of air or gas into the foam. Chloroflurocarbons (CFCs) have been used as blowing agents but their effects on the ozone layer have led to restrictions of their use and they are being replaced by more environmentally acceptable alternatives such as pentane.
Flame retardants

Certain end use sectors now take greater account of possible 'worst scenarios' in materials selection.

These considerations will include the effects of smoke and toxic decomposition products on people, property and equipment. PU foams used in furniture are an example which spring to mind. Fire retardancy can be achieved by the addition of fluorine, chlorine, bromine or iodine compounds to the polyol. Solid compounds such as melamine and aluminium trihydrate are also important flame retardants.

Materials and products are continuously evolving and developing and the trends are now to lower smoke and fume generation, and in the much longer term `lower toxicity'. There is an increasing commitment to tougher requirements and in certain sectors of the PU industry this has led to the development of low or halogen free systems.
Pigments

Many PUs tend to yellow in the light albeit without any adverse affect on the physical properties. To produce coloured PUs pigmented pastes are added to the polyol formulation. The pigments, both inorganic and organic, improve the light stability of PU products.
Fillers

As with other polymers the use of fillers in PUs will yield products with modified performance. Calcium carbonate and glass fibres are most commonly used. The former primarily to make cheaper formulations, the latter are of growing interest in reaction injection moulding (RIM) technology (see later).
Basic Polyurethane Chemistry

The simplest PU is linear in which the hydroxyl compound and the nitrogen compound each have a functionality of two. This can be represented by the following:

Isocyanate + Polyol = Polyurethane

The isocyanate can react with different chemical groups, so the final properties of the polymer will vary according to the reaction route taken.

Therefore the formulation of a PU must take into account every possible reactive constituent. PUs may have a very widely varying structure depending on the type of isocyanate and the type of reactive hydrogen components present in the formulation.

The presence or otherwise of the various groups along the urethane linkage will control the end properties of the polymer.

The curing of a PU can be regarded as the formation of a network, also called crosslinking, the extent or degree of cure is often expressed as the crosslink density.

The extent of cross linking may vary and will be reflected in the final properties of the PU, ranging from longer, linear chains of flexible elastomers and foams to the rigid, heavily cross linked polymers. Thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPUs) are a particular case. They are effectively co-polymers of a hard PU and a very flexible PU in which microphase segregation of the hard phase occurs

Polymer Plasticisers

2007-02-10T02:14:00.002-08:00

From garden chairs to shoe soles, from all manner of films to CDs and DVDs, from packaging to tires, tubes and hoses: plastics and rubber have become an aspect of modern life that we could not live without. Keeping up to date with state-of-the-art plastics technology means getting to grips with names that can leave your head in a spin: polypropylene, polyurethane, nitrile rubber, polyoxymethylene, - to name but a few. But in a not insignificant number of cases, the outstanding properties of the prized plastics used in all these successful applications are not solely down to the polymers themselves. Just like a top student who gets good grades at school, plastics too only get to the top of their class with a little bit of extra help. And that help often means simply mixing in special additives to make polymers impact-resistant, flexible, weather-resistant and soft. In many cases, it is the additives that make the plastic what it is.
Plasticisers

Plasticisers are a rather special type of additive. Without plasticisers for example, PVC would have been too brittle and fragile to be able to conquer the huge market it has taken over today; without plasticisers most injection molding compounds would be entirely unsuitable for that purpose, and without plasticisers, some blends of rubber simply could not be produced. Not only do plasticisers make plastics extensible, plastic, elastic and flexible at low temperatures, in many cases it is only possible to process polymer products on a commercial basis by incorporating a plasticiser. In fact, were it not for the invention of plasticisers, the plastics industry would very probably not have developed much beyond the stage it was at in the olden days, as the first plastics and modified natural polymers such as nitrocellulose or galalith were hard and brittle and therefore unusable for everyday uses. And of course it doesn’t exactly boost the marketability of a new material, if for example you have to look after your comb as if it were made of Meissen porcelain.
Camphor

But plasticisers changed all that. The first one to be used in real plastics was camphor, a colourless substance, whose smell is reminiscent of many a cold remedy and that consists of small crystals extracted from the wood of a Chinese laurel bush known as Cinnamomum camphora. In 1869, an inventor named John Wesley Hyatt and his brother mixed camphor with nitrocellulose in order to make the nitrocellulose more malleable.
Other Oils

Hyatt was not the first person to attempt to make the brittle early products of an emerging plastics industry easier to handle through the use of additives, however. A no less ambitious inventor by the name of Alexander Parkes had already tried to achieve the same effect using wood tar and vegetable oils for example. He did, however, have problems in achieving the right recipe: his "Parkesin" was relatively easy to process, but after just a few weeks, items such as ladies’ earrings, combs and bracelets that had been made from this particular product would warp so badly that they could no longer be used - probably due to the fact that Parkes’ oils evaporated too quickly. Other inventors used banana oil or even fusel oil that was produced during the distillation of whisky - but without notable success, if the lack of records is anything to go by.
Soft as Chewing Gum Yet Hard as Horn

Hyatt’s new plastic was better equipped to meet the challenges posed by the newly emerging plastics business. Depending upon the quantity of camphor that he mixed with collodion - a solution of gun cotton, known chemically as nitrocellulose - he was able to produce a plastic that was transparent but that could be coloured and that was as hard as horn but as flexible as crude rubber. This plastic was celluloid. One of the very first applications of this malleable material, which at a moderate temperature of between 80 to 90°C could be produced in any desired shape thanks to Hyatt’s fragrant formulation, was false teeth. Even though they smelt more than a little of camphor and for this reason did not always meet with the full satisfaction of their owners, the fact that they could be produced in a suitable colour meant that they were a considerable improvement upon the hard rubber plates that had been used up until then. Later on, the same material made a name for itself as the ideal backing material for photographic films.
Origin of Modern Plastics

It is true that for some time, Hyatt’s celluloid had to overcome various problems that were due to its close relationship to gun cotton. Mini explosions were caused when billiard balls made of nitrocellulose collided with one another. Eyewitnesses reported that the explosions were enough to make cowboys standing around the pool table reach for their revolvers. A magazine article even related the story of a lady whose evening became even more uplifting when the celluloid buttons on her evening dress came too close to a fireplace and caught fire. On one occasion, an entire celluloid factory exploded. But all of this did not detract from the fact that Hyatt had invented the first thermoplastic, and that it was a plasticiser that helped bring us the plastics of today.

Even after Hyatt, the history of plastics remained closely linked to that of its plasticisers. In 1946 a use was being sought for several hundred tons of a brittle cellulose triacetate plastic that had been used, amongst other things, in the production of aircraft windows. It was lying unused in the grounds of a factory, when an inventive chemist had the idea of combining the material with a plasticiser. And this was how a new injection moulding material was born. In 1952, the newly plasticised Cellit was dubbed "Cellidor" and was the very epitome of versatility. In the 1950s, it was used to make casings for radios, dashboards, combs, hairslides, screwdriver handles, spectacle frames and so on and so forth.
Plasticisers in Rubber

Plasticisers were also used by the rubber industry to refine its products. Though prolonged kneading makes unvulcanised rubber as soft as chewing gum, this is only because the kneading process breaks down the long chain molecules of the polymer. Unfortunately, however, this means that other important properties of this valuable material are also then lost. For this reason, rubber scientists made an early start in mixing all manner of liquid components into their black formulations - coal tar, pitch, oils and terpenes (such as camphor!), paraffin and even Vaseline. This meant that even without reducing the size of the rubber molecules very much, the crude rubber mixture was sticky enough for the many solid ingredients such as carbon black to be easily kneaded together in the mixer.

From this we can see how important these inconspicuous plasticisers are when it comes to processing polymers - they can completely revolutionize the properties of what initially was a rather unprepossessing polymer material. Paradoxically, this remarkable power is reflected by the fact that even well known chemical historians find it hard nowadays to come by information concerning plasticiser technology. The "right" plasticisers are so important to the performance of a plastic that information gleaned about them over the decades has disappeared into the vaults of companies using polymers. As time went by, this meant that plasticisers became rather anonymous utilitarian substances.
The Modern-Day Descendants of Camphor

What we do know, however, is that in addition to Hyatt, others soon started to use camphor. In fact, even today two thirds of all camphor produced worldwide is used in the production of celluloid. In a chapter entitled "Plasticisers," a chemistry encyclopaedia published in 1931 also lists terpene, as well as phthalates and glycerol esters and organic phosphates such as tricresyl phosphate. Not only do these make plastics flexible, but they also enhance their fire retardant ability, so much so that cellulose acetate, a successor to celluloid, managed to remove one of the major disadvantages of the original plastic, namely its flammability, after it had been elastified with a mixture of camphor and phosphates. State-of-the-art technology knows approximately 400 substances - "worldbeaters" and exotic ones - that are used in one form or another as a plasticisers. About one hundred of these are of significant commercial value.
Plasticiser Quantities

Halfway through the 1990s more than 4.2 million metric tons of plasticisers were being used. Around 90 percent of all plasticisers are nowadays used in PVC, a plastic that in its basic form is almost as brittle as glass and would be entirely unusable for most applications if plasticisers did not account for up to 55 percent of its content. Even rigid PVC can contain up to 12 percent plasticisers that improve its processability. Depending upon the application, other polymers make use of plasticisers in a range of different quantities. Paper contains around five percent, thermoplastic materials up to 10, elastomers sometimes as much as 60 percent; some plastics even have a plasticiser content of 95 percent!
How Plasticisers Work

All plasticisers are actually based upon the same principle and one that is almost self-explanatory, if we understand how plastics are made up on the inside. "Plastic" always consists of very long chain molecules that under extremely high magnification would look like long threads. A plastic in which these threads are loosely tangled together is flexible. In the case of many plastics, however, these threads have a tendency to lie on top of one another like packed spaghetti. In fact, anyone who casually throws spaghetti into a pan, does not stir it while it cooks and sieves it afterwards, will then find that in addition to strands of pasta that are loosely tangled together, there will also be areas in which the strands of pasta are still stuck together as they were in the bag. These lumps appear somewhat harder than the rest, although the pasta itself is fully cooked and soft.

A similar thing happens in the case of the chain molecules of plastics. A rigid structure that is similar to the strictly regular composition of crystals allows the plastic to appear rigid on the outside. In the pan as well as in the test tube, the rule is: loosely tangled is flexible, rigid structure is hard.
Chemistry

This is where the plasticisers come in. What it comes down to in the majority of cases, irrespective of whether we are talking about camphor or mineral oil, is molecules that are very much smaller than the chain molecules of the polymer material and that are interwoven into their spaghetti-like structure as the plastic is processed. They then push their way between the adjacent threads of plastic molecules, setting them apart from one another, and act rather in the same way as oil does on a plate of spaghetti, in that it allows the strands of pasta to slide past one another. This means that a loose, freely mobile structure can be created - the plastic becomes flexible and that the more plasticiser is added, the more flexible it becomes.

This simple analogy explains a whole range of items that form the bread and butter of a plastics chemist’s job. A large part of the expertise of a materials developer lies in being able to find substances that are the most ideally suited to the plastic being used. Hydrophilic substances cannot be interwoven into water-repellent molecules such as those of unvulcanised rubber for example, as the two substances would separate just like water and oil. Furthermore it is important to select a plasticiser that provides an optimum fit in respect of its own molecular configuration and the plastic chain molecules in question. Chain molecules are not as similar to one another as the strands of spaghetti - some polymers do remind us of flat pasta, while others have a zig-zag appearance or look like a chain of thick neon tubes, connected together with thin wires; others look like necklaces made of very fat pearls. After all, Hyatt’s celluloid only achieved the success it did because the camphor molecules were able to fit so well between the molecules of the gun cotton, which were shaped like a pearl necklace.

Not all plasticisers are suitable for every polymer. An additional factor is that each one has a different effect upon its "host molecule." While one provides a greater degree of flexibility at lower temperatures, another is specially designed to prevent plastics from melting at high temperatures. Others, meanwhile, not only make plastics more flexible, but also act as a kind of built-in fire extinguisher that can snuff out flames in their very early stages. They achieve this by decomposing in the presence of heat to produce flame-retardant substances.
One Problem - Many Solutions

Over the decades, the plastics industry’s order book for plasticisers has grown into a veritable menagerie of chemicals. It is however dominated by a number of "major families" of products. Phthalates are used in PVC cables and films, coatings and cellulose adhesives. Dicarbonates make flexible PVC elastic at low temperatures, phosphates are used as a flame-retardant and also as hydraulic fluid. Fatty acid esters - which are distant relatives of margarine - are used to plasticise rubber and vinyl resin floor coverings. For certain applications, plastics technologists also turn to esters of citric acid and tartaric acid.
Dangers

Of course it must also not be forgotten that despite the beneficial effect they have had upon plastics technology, plasticisers also have their detractors. In recent times, phthalates have been suspected of being harmful to health. Though no conclusive evidence has yet been forthcoming, investigations are currently taking place. Fortunately, whatever the outcome of this debate, it does not mean that all plasticisers are to be condemned: after all, one plasticiser is not the same as the next, as shown by camphor, which is a natural product.
Alternatives

In the meantime, some very useful products have been developed that provide an alternative to the phthalates. These products take the form of a family of substances whose members are known as "alkyl sulfonates". Alkyl sulfonates have for a long time been recognized as having no harmful effects and in many countries have even been authorized as being safe for food use. They are already used to replace the controversial phthalates in dolls and toy figurines, gloves, membranes for water beds, are found in sealants for the construction industry and for use in swimming aids and wellington boots. The material also possesses a whole host of further advantages such as, for example, the fact that unlike many other plasticisers, it is not attacked by the elements or water and gives rise to products that lend themselves well to printing. And this is not an unimportant factor when it comes to producing brightly coloured children’s paddling pools made from PVC film, amongst other things.

In its raw form, PVC is a brittle, almost glass-like plastic that would be virtually unusable if it were not for plasticisers. Alkyl sulfonates make it elastic, resist saponification and weather resistant.
Drifting Plasticiser Molecules

Industry researchers have recently developed a solution to the problem of drifting plasticiser molecules. The tiny particles of plasticiser contained within plastics are astonishingly mobile. In certain conditions they move around like honey in a sponge. The journey that some plasticiser molecules make through the plastic itself sooner or later comes to an end when they arrive on the surface, forming an unsightly greasy film. And housewives are not the only ones who are aware of this. Special plasticisers that have been trained to remain in one place within the polymer - for example by giving them long chain molecules - can prevent plastic and rubber from developing a dulled or greasy surface. Scientists have also developed customized halogen-free plasticisers for electronic circuit boards, so as to prevent the brittle plastic that is used to produce them from shattering when the boards are punched, drilled and soldered.
Growth and Development of Industry

The plasticiser industry is mostly involved with traditional products, and though devoting so much effort to product development is rather unusual, it certainly pays off. In the last two years, sales of some specialist plasticisers have grown by around 15 percent, even though the plastics market only managed to achieve growth of around 4 percent in the same period. This alone is enough to show that the final chapter in the long history of plasticisers has yet to be written: new plastics and the new demands placed upon the products made from them continually require new solutions, and only the pooled brainpower of plastics experts is sufficient to do justice to these.
Natural Plasticisers

But back to plasticisers. The plasticising chemicals that emerge from the flasks and crucibles of the chemical industry are of course not the only ones that exist in the world at large. As nature also partly consists of polymers, it also requires substances to ensure that these polymers remain flexible. Proteins, DNA, starches and wood and even stones basically consist of long and sometimes spatially interlinked chain molecules. Water is the main plasticiser that is used by nature. Without their water content, natural fibres such as silk, wool or cotton would be brittle.

Surplus water also keeps muscular proteins flexible. In advanced age, water content decreases and fats more or less successfully take on part of the function of a plasticiser. Not only the plastics industry depends upon plasticisers - Mother Nature herself could not manage without them. Made up of chain molecules like those found in plastics, muscle fibres, just like modern polymers, contain their own plasticisers in the form of water and fat molecules. Even quartz, which is an extremely hard material, can be softened using water: hard, natural quartz consists of only 0.01 percent water, whilst artificial quartz for technical reasons contains around ten times that amount. Artificial quartz can be shaped in a similar way to plaster at a temperature of 400 degrees Celsius, a temperature that minerals can usually withstand with comfort, whilst "dry" natural quartz literally remains "rock solid" up to a temperature of 1000 degrees.

This is a prime example of the fact that the application of plasticisers in technology is not necessarily confined to plastics. Anyone who thinks hard about the curved handle of his umbrella must have an idea that some sort of process must exist to make wood flexible. And of course hot water vapour can be used to soften wood, but liquid ammonia, combined with organic solvents such as polyethylene glycol, dimethyl sulfoxide or tetrahydrofuran, does the job even better. This particular formulation even allows you to tie knots in walking sticks. Once the ammonia has evaporated, the wood returns to the state it was in when its freshly cut state.
Emerging From The Plastics Middle Ages

More than a century ago, it was Hyatt’s invention that brought us plastics. And so it comes as no surprise that professions that until now have been involved with the preservation of antique pigments are now having to get to grips with plasticiser problems. For example, restorers are currently fighting to preserve the space suits that the Apollo astronauts wore on the moon and returned to Earth undamaged. They contained PVC tubes that had been plasticised using a phthalate; after spending more than 30 years in a museum, this liquid substance, in a way that is typical of all drifting plasticisers, has diffused out of the polymer, causing the supply tubes to become fragile. What was once the ultimate in space suit technology has turned out to be less long-lasting than knights’ harnesses that are hundreds of years old. Looking at things from this point of view, we are therefore still in what amounts to the Middle Ages of plastics technology.

New Alloys from Bayer/Krupp

2007-02-10T02:14:00.001-08:00

In a joint development with Bayer, Krupp has developed Nicrofer 3033 (Alloy 33), a ductile austenitic alloy containing 30% nickel, 33% chromium and that is high in nitrogen, which offers superior corrosion resistance in nitric acid and nitric hydrofluoric mixes, and sea water. Alloy 33 combines high strength and ductility with excellent corrosion resistance. It can displace super duplex alloys as it can achieve strengths above 1,200N/mm2 by additional cold work. The alloy is available in all product forms. Another new gas turbine alloy is available from Krupp is Alloy 2100GT. This has a high carbon and aluminium content, which gives excellent high temperature mechanical properties and oxidation resistance. Tantalum further enhances both room temperature and elevated temperature properties.

Mullite – An Introduction

2007-02-10T02:13:00.003-08:00

Mullite rarely occurs as a mineral in nature. In fact, the word mullite is derived from the Isle of Mull off the English coast, where the only naturally occurring deposits of mullite have ever been found. Naturally occurring mullite is so rare because it is the result of extremely high temperatures that have come into contact with aluminosilicate minerals of just the right type.

Despite the fact that mullite rarely occurs in nature it is an extremely valuable mineral to anyone involved in producing products that need to withstand high temperatures, corrosive environments, or other adverse conditions. Its use, therefore, as an industrial mineral, has to be supplied by synthetic alternatives. These methods generally involve high temperature reactions of aluminosilicate minerals such as kyanite, andalusite or sillimanite or alternatively bauxites and kaolins.
Key Properties

Mullite is a very important phase in high temperature, high hot strength, and thermally shock resistant products. It is virtually volume stable at very high temperatures. It has a low coefficient of thermal expansion. It is a good thermal and electrical insulator – even at very high temperatures. It has outstanding hot load-bearing properties, and it is resistant to many corrosive environments. It is, in short, the key ingredient in many refractory and ceramic products

Metallized Rubalit® (96% or 99% Alumina) and ALUNIT® (Aluminum Nitride) Substrates – Supplier Data By CeramTec

2007-02-10T02:13:00.001-08:00

CeramTec's experience in manufacturing ceramic products goes back to the earliest days of electronics. Since then, they have evolved into a leading manufacturer of aluminum oxide and aluminum nitride substrates.

Ceramics made by CeramTec have found their way into a wide range of electronic applications, with client industries ranging from automotive engineering, sensors, optoelectronics, aerospace, navigation, power electronics, instrumentation, and control systems, medical equipment, telecommunications, industrial and entertainment electronics. CeramTec's products are noted for their dependable performance under demanding day-to-day operating conditions and are essential to the safe and reliable functioning of a wide range of systems.
Rubalit® Alumina and Alunit® Aluminum Nitride
Global Industry Standard Materials

CeramTec is a leading manufacturer of Alumina and Aluminum Nitride substrates. More than 30 years of production experience as well as a strong global commitment, including manufacturing sites and laser facilities in Europe, North America and the Far East, enable CeramTec to be a resourceful and dependable partner for the microelectronic industry and other manufacturers of electronic components.

Our Rubalit® and Alunit® materials were developed in our own laboratories. Continuous material improvement is achieved by applying the latest quality methods, such as SPC, DOE, FMEA, etc.

CeramTec has developed state-of-the-art manufacturing technologies for substrates, including tape casting, sintering, lasering, stamping, dry-pressing, as well as metallization of ceramics.
Lasered Substrates with Tight Tolerances

Lasered substrates are characterized by very tight tolerances and enable a variety of outside geometries, contours, hole combinations and scribe lines.

No tooling is involved in lasered substrates. This lowers production lead-time and cost.
Data Transfer via CAD

Customers can transfer their data directly via long-distance data lines. This guarantees higher dependability and accuracy while shortening lead-time.
Complex Geometries and Precision Holes

With the aid of computer controlled CO2 lasers, substrates can be:

· scribed

· machined

· drilled

· notched
Smallest Hole Diameter:

0.08 mm (0.00032")
Metallized Rubalit® and Alunit® Substrates

Ceramic substrates, with their excellent mechanical, electrical and thermal characteristics, are metallized on-site in our facilities. The metallization types developed by CeramTec enable superior adhesion, wettability, and excellent performance consistency in soldering baths.
Layer Design

The base layer is tungsten, screenprinted with minimum layer thickness of 6 µm. An electroless nickel layer (approximately 2 µm) assumes a good solder flow. Other thicknesses are available for specific customers' requirements.

Electrolytic nickel plating requires electrical connections during plating. Therefore, special design guidelines apply if electrolytic technology is required.

An additional gold flash layer (approximately 0.11 µm) can be added to enhance corrosion resistance. Also, the electrolytic nickel layer can be covered with a bondable gold plated layer. Solder finishes are also available.

Metallic Corrosion - Stress Corrosion Cracking

2007-02-10T02:12:00.001-08:00

The effects of residual and applied stresses and corrosive environments in service are closely interrelated. The more highly stressed (higher energy) regions of a metal will become anodic and corrosive cells will be set up due to differences in local stress levels. Cold worked regions, for example tube or sheet bends and cut edges, will be corroded in preference to uniform parts of sections in the same way that grain boundaries are attacked more than grain interiors on the microscopic scale.
Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) Defined

The combined effects of stress and corrosion can result in a special type of failure known as Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC). This arises under a particular set of circumstances for a given alloy: specific alloy condition plus specific corrosive media and sufficient local tensile stress. Chloride induced cracking of stainless steels, caustic cracking of plain carbon steels and ammonia damage to copper alloys are typical examples of this problem. The mechanism of SCC is shown as a simple representation in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Schematic view of Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) and corrosion fatigue cracking

SCC is believed to be nucleated at pitting damage sites and develops under the action of local tensile stresses as a highly branched network of fine cracks. At each crack tip the combined action of the tensile stress and specific ions in the corrosive media cause continual crack propagation with little evidence of local deformation.

In austenitic stainless steels, for example, warm chloride solutions in the presence of residual tensile stress can lead to cracking. SCC tendency is slight in low Ni ferritic and martensitic grades but is severe in the 8-10% Ni austenitic steels. Duplex stainless steels have greater SCC resistance than austenitic since the duplex microstructure helps to inhibit the growth of SCC cracks, which tend to be deflected or arrested at austenite-ferrite interfaces. Maximum resistance is obtained with 50/50 austenite-ferrite microstructures and the dispersion of the two phases should be as fine as possible. The increased interest in the duplex grades stems not only from their high pitting and SCC resistance but also from their higher proof stress level which offers savings in material and weight over austenitic material.
When does SCC occur?

Stress corrosion cracking presents an especially difficult problem, since not only is it highly localised but it can occur in environments that are merely mildly corrosive to the material. The damaging concentration of the harmful ions in that environment may be quite small and difficult to detect and, even in the absence of applied stress, residual stresses in a structure can often be of a sufficiently high level to cause SCC and failure in service.

In a given situation the time of exposure needed to cause SCC failure depends on the stress intensity at any pre-existing or developed crack tip. The concentration of stress at the tip of a sharp crack or flaw can be quantified in terms of the Stress Intensity Factor, K1. It determines the growth rate of SCC cracks for a specific alloy environment combination. Catastrophic failure of a component will occur when this factor reaches a critical value, the Fracture toughness of the material, K1C. This enables the determination of allowable defect size in design to avoid failure under given loading conditions.

Below a threshold value of K1, called K1SCC, growth of a crack by SCC is not expected, but above this value the initial SCC growth rate increases with increasing K1, called stage

Metallic Corrosion - Pitting

2007-02-10T02:11:00.000-08:00

Severe local attack such as pitting, (see figure 1) and crevice corrosion can be a particular problem in stainless steels and other alloys which depend on the presence of self healing (when oxygen is available), adherent and relatively defect-free oxide films for their resistance to corrosion.

Figure 1. Pitting attack (a) possible defect site and (b) growth from defects.
Pitting

Pitting results from local breakdown of the barrier film which allows an anodic reaction to begin at point sites on the exposed metal. The cause of the point site may be local mechanical damage or chemical breakdown of the surface film, oxygen depletion beneath debris particles on the surface or chemical (galvanic effect) differences between second-phase particles or inclusions and the metal matrix.

Pitting is quite often self-accelerating due to local rises in acidity in the pits and is usually associated with the presence of certain ions, for example chloride and sulphide, in the corrosive environment. Such ions contribute to film breakdown and prevent film repair.
Stainless Steel Design

In stainless steels a minimum of 12% chromium is required in solid solution in the matrix to provide passivation by protective oxide film formation. Nickel additions (normally 6-10%), molybdenum and nitrogen are also used to improve general corrosion and pitting resistance. They also help to control matrix structure, for example to produce austenitic or duplex grades. In these steels, carbon content is kept as low as possible during alloy production. Subsequent processing, welding and heat treatment variables are carefully controlled to avoid the formation of Cr-rich carbide precipitates and other damaging second phases which can not only reduce toughness but also cause severe pitting and intergranular attack due to micro-galvanic effects.

A row of pits can form along deep scratches as the oxide film will not be impervious and the underlying metal will contain additional internal stress. Larger pits can form at dross and sand inclusions, highlighting the damaging effect of inadequate casting cleanliness. Casting defects such as shrinkage pores and inclusions can also result in severe local attack.

To minimise pitting, stainless steels are solution treated and quenched to dissolve second phase precipitates and to prevent their reformation on cooling. Due to the presence of chloride ions, conventional austenitic and duplex grades are prone to both pitting and crevice corrosion in seawaters but their resistance can be improved by additions of up to 6% Mo and 0.2-0.5% N.
Predicting Pitting Resistance

The relative behaviour of various grades can be compared by an empirical relationship for Pitting Resistance Equivalent (PREN), based upon laboratory corrosion tests in chloride containing solutions:

PREN = %Cr + 3.3%Mo X%N

where X = 16 for duplex and X = 30 for austenitic steels. The higher the PREN value the better the pitting resistance.

Hence super-duplex and super-austenitic grades give PREN values of 40-50, lean alloy duplex 27-30 and 18/8 (type 304) austenitic a value of about 20. For duplex structures, alloys are designed to produce ferrite and austenite phases with the same pitting resistance to avoid preferential attack of either phase.

Research into pitting and the growth of corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion cracks which are believed to originate at pits can now be aided by the use of special techniques which allow real-time mapping of local corrosion activity and the determination of localised corrosion rates. Such information is essential in the accurate prediction of safe working life.

Metallic Corrosion – Leaching (Selective Corrosion)

2007-02-10T02:07:00.000-08:00

The removal of one element from a solid solution alloy is often called leaching. The gradual loss of zinc from brass (dezincification) is perhaps the most well known example of this type of corrosion, but aluminium can also be leached from aluminium bronzes (dealuminification) and nickel from 70/30 Cupronickel alloys (denickelification).

In each case initial corrosion dissolves both components of the alloy but the more noble metal, copper, is then precipitated from solution at the surface. This leads to increased solution of the parent alloy due to galvanic effects and hence further deposition of copper. The overall effect is to reduce the surface and underlying regions of a component to a spongy mass of material with much reduced mechanical strength, leading to possible collapse under normal working stresses.

The tendency to this form of attack can be decreased by additional alloying such as the addition of arsenic to brass and nickel to Al-bronzes. Leaching and other examples of the selective attack are illustrated schematically in figure 1.

Figure 1. Leaching (top) and selective corrosion (bottom)
Graphitisation of Cast Iron

A common form of leaching is the graphitisation of cast irons. In slightly acidic waters both flake graphite (grey) and nodular graphite (ductile) irons are corroded due to the anodic behaviour of the matrix with respect to the cathodic graphite. This results in the conversion of the structure to a weak porous mass of corrosion product and graphite residue. However, there is often little sign of the extent of this damage from the outwards appearance of the material, since the original shape and dimensions of components and pipes remain unaffected. This highlights the importance of correct application of ultrasonic testing in the assessment of condition of cast iron sections that may have suffered this form of attack.

In water pipes both internal and external graphitisation may occur where soil chemistry is aggressive. Corrosion mechanisms will also be subject to the influence of microbiological activity. In some cases, in effluent lines and older water mains, pipe sections can be almost fully graphitised whilst still holding water. They have been severely weakened, however, and are prone to sudden failure if water pressure changes, if supporting soil moves or vibration from overhead traffic increases.

The graphitised surface can be easily penetrated by a screwdriver or knife and the extent of the damage revealed by a examination under a microscope. Where it is cost effective graphitisation is avoided by the use of high nickel austenitic cast irons.

Brick Walls and Brickwork - Vanadium Staining

2007-01-04T01:03:00.000-08:00

Vanadium stains are evident by a yellow- green discolouration on the face of a brick resulting from the vanadium salts which are naturally present in most clays used to produce light coloured bricks.

Vanadium stains are not powdery crystalline deposits and cannot simply be brushed off. They are often mistaken for moss or algae which usually grows in damp areas across the whole face of the bricks and mortar. By contrast vanadium stains appear on dry walls, normally as patches on the brick only.
Causes

Vanadium stains are a result of water soluble vanadium salts. These salts are put into solution by excess water migrating through the bricks and brought to the surface as they dry out. During this drying out process the water evaporates leaving vanadium salts on the brick surface. The vanadium salt turns green when it crystallises in an acidic environment, such as after acid cleaning or exposure to rainwater, Which naturally acidic.

This process can occur whenever the bricks are subjected to excessive water from rain either before or (more often) during the bricklaying process. If the stains are not removed prior to cleaning with hydrochloric acid, they may turn a darker colour and be more difficult to remove.

Vanadium salts are neither permanent or harmful and they do not indicate any defects in the bricks. Such stains in exposed areas generally wash off in time, but their removal can be hastened by chemical treatment.
Remedies

Method 1. Apply VanGo and leave on till the stain disappears, then wash off. This method does not require neutralising. If a white residue appears simply hose this off.

Method 2. Oxcid can be applied to the stained bricks without pre-wetting. This should be neutralised with a neutralising agent such as Neutril. Do not wash off. This method cannot be used on Vanadium stains which have darkened as a result of cleaning with hydrochloric acid.

Ethylene Vinyl Acetate – EVA

2007-01-03T01:05:00.000-08:00

Improved low temperature flexibility compared to LDPE. Film has improved clarity compared to LDPE. Improved weathering. Similar flexibility to Plasticised PVC may be obtained, but without problems of plasticiser migration. May be crosslinked and radio frequency welded. Better tear resistance than LDPE. Can accept high filler loadings.
Disadvantages

Reduced chemical resistance compared to LDPE. Reduced barrier properties. Reduced creep resistance.
Applications

Stretch film for shrink wrapping, protector strips, shoe soles (crosslinked), disposable medical equipment. As a coating (for heat sealing) on PP, PET and aluminium films. Flexible toys, tubing, wire coating.

Effects of Organic Additives on Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Basic Aluminum Sulfate

2007-01-02T01:05:00.000-08:00

Basic aluminum sulfate can be prepared by homogeneous precipitation starting from admixtures of ammonium aluminum sulfate and ammonium bisulfite solutions. Powder agglomeration problems usually arise in wet precipitation processes mainly at high concentration of precursors. Some organic additives have been used in order to modify the physical and chemical properties of the final product during precipitation processes. In this work, the effects of cationic, anionic and neutral organic additives on the physical and chemical characteristics of basic aluminum sulfate (BAS) obtained by homogeneous precipitation were investigated. Dodecylethyl-dimethyl-ammonium bromide (DEA) and chitosan were used as cationic additives, whereas dodecyl lithium sulfate (DLS) was selected as anionic additive. Furthermore, poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) were used as neutral additives. The products were characterized by Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), powder x-ray diffractometry (XRD), thermal analysis (TG and DTA) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The chemical composition and crystallinity of the final product were not modified by the presence of the studied additives in this reaction media. The basic aluminum sulfates were amorphous, with chemical composition 2Al2O3·SO3·9 H2O. However, the morphology and agglomeration state of the final product were modified by the nature of the used additives. Anionic additive, DLS, produced irregular agglomerated particles. On the other hand, neutral additives, PVA and PEG, provided particles with low agglomeration state. The highest effect on dispersion was observed when cationic additives were used. Fine well-dispersed particles of basic aluminum sulfate were obtained by addition of chitosan during the precipitation process.
Keywords

Organic additives, agglomeration, basic aluminum sulfate
Introduction

Aluminas have been in use for many years as catalyst, adsorbents, desiccants, abrasives, plastic fillers as well as fire retardants for many chemical process industries. Aluminas for water adsorption, which are traditionally known as desiccants, were first introduced in 1932 [1]. Since long time ago, synthetic aluminas have been used in the chromatographic purification of biological compounds. Recently aluminas have found widespread usage in applications as diverse as municipal wastes treatment as well as in polymer and pharmaceutical industries [2].

Alumina chemicals have been applied to treat industrial and municipal waters [3]. On the other hand, aluminum sulfate is useful as a coagulant for removal of various metals, particles and undesirable organic compounds from industrial waste water. Alumina trihydroxide (gibbsite) and monohydrate (pseudoboehmites) also have been accepted as flocculants in drinking-water. Transition forms of aluminas have been used as adsorbents for removal of undesirable contaminants in both municipal and industrial waters.

As a result of more stringent conservation requirements large alumina adsorption processes have been developed for water treatment. Successful new environmental applications of alumina adsorbents include the removal of phosphate, mercaptan, arsenic, fluoride and colloidal silica compounds in ground and drinking water [4].

The most important source of aluminum hydroxides is the Bauxite refining plant. More than 94% world alumina production is accounted for by the Bayer process for Bauxite refining. The alumina product from the Bayer process is usually 99.5% pure with soda (Na2O) as the mayor impurity [5]. Therefore, when a pure alumina product is required, it must be obtained by another chemical process that uses pure aluminum salts as a raw material.

The interest to find alternative routes for the preparation of ceramic powders that avoid the inconveniences of the traditional techniques has been growing. For this reason, the development of new synthetic routes is required that allow to obtain ceramic powders with specific properties, such as small particle size, spherical in shape, narrow particle size distribution, absence of agglomerates and high chemical purity.

One of the most interesting recent developments in the preparation of aluminum hydroxide and alumina has been the introduction of BAS as monosized alumina precursors with uniform and controllable morphology. Matijevic [6] originally produced particles that contained an appreciable amount of sulfate but this contaminant could be exchanged for hydroxide species, in much the same manner as the one described by Gordon et al. [7], converting the BAS to hydrous aluminum oxide.

Other researchers have also used basic aluminum salts as high purity alumina precursors. Cornilsen and Reed studied amorphous basic aluminum succinate and BAS as potential precursors [8]. Whereas Sacks et al. [9] and Blendell et al. [10] used spherical BAS as the specific starting material for conversion to alumina.

The BAS studied by the above mentioned researchers, were obtained by homogeneous precipitation of BAS in aqueous medium. In this case, agglomeration problems of the BAS particles generally arise, especially when the precipitation process is performed at high concentrations of aluminum salt. Therefore, under this condition it is difficult to obtain monosized and non-agglomerated particles.

The use of low aluminum concentration solutions in the precipitation process allows the preparation of non-agglomerated BAS particles. However, at these low alumina concentrations the amount of product obtained is too low, from a practical point of view.

In one alternative process to prevent agglomeration, organic compounds are added to the precipitation medium. Generally, the preparation of mono-dispersed alumina hydroxide by sol-gel process was achieved, using high alumina concentration and hydroxyl-propylcellulose as a steric agent to prevent agglomeration.

In this work, the effects of cationic, anionic and neutral organic additives on the physical and chemical characteristics of BAS obtained by homogeneous precipitation were investigated. DEA and chitosan were used as cationic additives, whereas DLS was selected as anionic additive. Furthermore, PVA and PEG were used as neutral additives. The products were characterized by XRD, TA (DTA and TG), FTIR and SEM.

Degradation of Polymers

2007-01-01T01:04:00.000-08:00

While the plastics industry searches for solutions to the problem of plastics waste, there is, surprisingly, a growing band of people trying to save plastics. The classic nightmare that we will all end up beneath a tide of plastics bottles and packaging is evaporating as plastics reveal that they are not the everlasting materials that we thought they were. Although the manufacturers of early ‘plastics’ such as horn buttons, Bois Durci paperweights or celluloid collars would be astonished to see how well many of their goods have survived, many other plastics have begun to show disturbing signs of instability. Every collection of plastics worldwide, from the Science Museum and Tate Gallery to the Comb & Plastics Museum in Oyonnax, has already lost or is losing unique and beautiful pieces through degradation.

AZoM - Metals, Ceramics, Polymer and Composites : Degradation of a celluloid Polymer

Figure 1. Degradation is clearly apparent from this 1930’s shoehorn made of celluloid.
Plastics, Not as Long-Lasting as Once Thought

The crucial fact is that plastics are organic and have been described as a time bomb ticking away since cellulose nitrate based plastics were invented around 130 years ago. It can of course be argued that manufacturers’ foremost intentions have never been to make beautiful objects for museums. However, museums have a duty to preserve their acquisitions. Two conferences on this subject have already been held in Britain during the first quarter of 1995. The tone of the second conference, organised by The National Museums of Scotland in Edinburgh in April, was fatalistic but determined.
Recognition of Polymer Degradation

It was not until the late 1980s that attention was paid to the fact that plastics artefacts had been physically changing, showing signs of acid vapour, tackiness, warping, embrittlement and crazing. Cellulose nitrate and cellulose acetate were particularly affected. By 1991 John Morgan of the Plastics Historical Society had collected enough data to write Conservation of Plastics -An Introduction, a joint PHS /Conservation Unit publication, and the Conservation Unit launched a survey to identify objects at risk with the aim of setting up a research programme. The survey included everything from radios and cables to textiles and sculptures.
Deterioration of Acrylic Paintings and Pieces of Art

By 1992 acrylic based paintings worth millions of pounds by leading artists of the 1960s including David Hockney and Jackson Pollock had begun to suffer discolouration, cracking and greyness due to the absorption of dust and atmospheric pollutants. These paints seemed particularly vulnerable. At room temperature they are relatively soft and attract dirt which becomes embedded. However, to date no method has been found of cleaning them.
Impact on the Photographic Film Industry

The photographic film industry was also badly hit when irreplaceable archive nitrate stock started to decompose. Today, the National Film Archive transfers cellulose nitrate and cellulose triacetate onto more stable polyester at the rate of a million metres a year.
Preserving Plastics Pieces in Museums

The PHS/CU survey unearthed some interesting facts. For example, 40% of museums surveyed contain plastics objects manufactured and collected since 1980, and modem plastics are also showing symptoms of decay. Polyurethane foam appears to be one of the worst victims, and many early video and audio tapes on magnetic media are already unplayable. The curator who has to supervise a collection of high-tech, mixed material products such as space suits is confronted with a conservation dilemma: which material deserves priority treatment when each separate plastic has different requirements?

Cadmium and Lead Analysis in Brass by X-Ray Fluorescence ( XRF ) to Comply with Environmental Directives by PANalytical

2006-12-31T01:03:00.000-08:00

The European Union (EU) has introduced legislation on electrical and electronic equipment in relation to its composition and the levels to which it should be recycled. This legislation has its origin in the EU Directives relating to Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) and to the Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) in new products. Manufacturers will need to ensure that their products (and their components) comply in order to sell in the European market. If they do not comply, they will need to redesign their products.

Another EU directive, End-of Life Vehicles (ELV), aims to reduce, or prevent, the amount of waste produced from ELVs and increase the recovery and recycling of materials or components. The ELV Directive banned lead, cadmium, mercury and hexavalent chromium from products, with some exemptions, from 1 July 2002. The RoHS Directive will ban the placing on the EU market of new electrical and electronic equipment containing more than agreed levels of lead, cadmium, mercury, hexavalent chromium, polybrominated biphenyl (PBB) and polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants from 1 July 2006. The limits for these substances required by both directives are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Limits for RoHS and ELV directives.

Element

Limit

Pb, Hg, Cr6+, PBB*, PBDE*

0.1wt%

Cd

0.01wt%

Note: *only for RoHS directive
Directives on Materials Recycling in the Rest of the World

In other parts of the world similar directives are being introduced including electronic waste recycling legislation in the USA, often referred to as California RoHS, and the adoption of RoHS in China. Given the rigorous demands of such legislation, X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) has emerged as the optimal solution for elemental analysis of heavy metals in a wide variety of materials, including brass.
Analysis of Cadmium and Lead in Brass

This note demonstrates the capability of the Epsilon 5 energy-dispersive XRF spectrometer for the analysis of Cd and Pb in bulk brass samples. In addition, results are presented for the analysis of Cd in brass samples of various shapes and sizes, since such samples are likely to be encountered when analyzing product sub-assemblies.
Measurement Criteria

Measurement criteria The application was set up and calibrated using five brass certified reference materials (MH1 to 5) from MBH Analytical Ltd (UK). The measurement conditions are given in Table 2.

Table 2. Analytical parameters used for the application set-up. *This is the maximum current; for each measurement the current is adjusted to obtain maximum 50% detector dead-time.

Element

Secondary Target

Measurement live time (s)

kV

mA*

Cd

CsI

300

100

6

Pb

Zr

300

100

6
Accuracy

Figures 1 and 2 show calibration curves for Cd and Pb in brass samples and a summary of the calibration data is given in Table 3. These data show a good correlation between the certified concentrations and the measured intensities. The calibration RMS indicates the accuracy of the method. It is a statistical comparison (1 sigma) of the certified chemical concentrations of the standards with the concentrations calculated by the regression in the calibration procedure. In addition, a certified reference material (BNF C48.06) was analyzed as an unknown sample. A comparison of the certified and measured values for Cd and Pb is shown in Table 4.

Brick Walls and Brickwork - Cleaning

2006-12-30T01:00:00.000-08:00

The appearance of a brick building can be permanently spoiled by bad cleaning techniques or by the use of the wrong cleaning agent. Because of this it is important to ensure that the correct cleaning methods are utilised for the best results. In order to help with this, Austral has provided some helpful hints to help reduce the associated problems with brick cleaning. Remember that the only function of hydrochloric acid is to dissolve portland cement.
Helpful Cleaning Hints

1. All mortar dags should be removed using either a metal or wooden scraper.

2. Protect all areas which may come in contact with the cleaning agent as recommended by the manufacturer.

3. Ensure that the area of brickwork to be cleaned is saturated with water.

4. Use the correct ratio of Hydrochloric acid and water

(a) Light coloured bricks - 1 part hydrochloric acid to 20 parts water

(b) Dark coloured bricks - 1 part hydrochloric acid to 10 parts water

* Under no circumstances should more than 1 part hydrochloric acid to 10 parts water be used. It is better to scrub more vigorously than to use more acid.

* Where vanadium staining appears on brickwork spot clean with a solution of 20 to 40 grams of oxalic acid per litre of water prior to cleaning with hydrochloric acid.

5. When cleaning try not to work in direct sunlight.

6. Always begin at the highest point and work down the wall.

7. Only clean small areas at a time, eg 1 square metre to ensure you have adequate time to wash off the cleaning solution to ensure no staining occurs.

8. Allow solution to remain on wall for 3 - 6 minutes before scrubbing. Be sure not to scrub the joints.

9. Rinse thoroughly, making sure that all cleaning solution has been removed.

* Light coloured bricks should be rinsed with a neutralising solution, such as bicarbonate soda or washing soda, instead of water.
Take Care With Cleaning

High pressure cleaning equipment can be used but the following simple precautions must be adhered to:

· Keep pressure low - around 1000-1200psi (6800-8500 KPa).

· Use a wide fan spray nozzle (15°)

· The nozzle should be generally 500mm from the wall or never closer than 300mm.

· Test a small unseen section prior to full scale cleaning to ensure best results.

· If the mortar joint or the bricks are being damaged then either the pressure is too high or the nozzle is too close to the wall.

Note: Austral does not recommend high pressure cleaning of dry pressed bricks.
Safety Precautions

· Always wear protective equipment such as gloves, safety glasses, etc.

· Store acid and acid solution in heavy duty plastic containers supplied by manufacturer.

· If cleaning solution comes in contact with body, irrigate area removing all traces of cleaning solution.

Aluminium Alloys – 8BAl Master Alloy for High Conductivity EC-Grade Aluminium from Metallurg Aluminium

2006-12-29T01:00:00.000-08:00

As the global leader in the development and production of aluminium grain refiners, aluminium master alloys, metal treatment alloys and compacted alloying products, Metallurg Aluminium is constantly developing innovative products to improve casthouse efficiency. Our unique 8% boron aluminium master alloy, known as 8BAl™, is breaking new ground in cost-effective transition metal removal.
The Importance of Transition Metal Impurities

The removal of transition metal impurities is essential in producing high-conductivity aluminium for wire and cable applications. Titanium, vanadium, chromium and zirconium and other elements – present in the metal as smelter impurities – significantly impede the electrical conductivity of aluminium. These solute impurities are generally precipitated from the melt through the addition of boron aluminium master alloys.
Boron Aluminium Treatments

Boron aluminium treatment is an environmentally safer and more cost-effective alternative to borax addition to electrolytic cells or potassium borofluoride (KBF4) treatment of aluminium in the mixing or holding furnace. Boron aluminium treatment avoids boron contamination of electrolytic cells, and eliminates KBF4 refractory attack.
How Boron Aluminium Treatment Works

After the addition of BAl (with an AlB2 or AlB12 microstructure), solute Ti, V and other impurities react with the aluminium borides, and these particles are precipitated, settling to the bottom of the melt to form a boride sludge. Clean, high conductivity Al is then decanted. Boron is trapped in the sludge at the bottom of the furnace. Adding boron in the launder in rod or Castcut™ form is an alternative, and less common treatment method. In this case, borides formed would be trapped in the filters. With either method, boron recovery should not be expected in the final alloy.

Advanced Materials for Gas Turbine Engines – Fan Blades

2006-12-28T00:58:00.000-08:00

Fan blades for high by pass aero-engines were, for many years, manufactured from solid titanium alloy forgings and were designed with mid span snubbers to control vibration. However, snubbers impeded airflow and reduced aerodynamic efficiency, penalising fuel consumption. Modern designs have deleted the snubber to provide a more aerodynamically efficient aerofoil, and increased the blade chord for mechanical stability, reducing the number of blades by approximately one third. This has been achieved at reduced weight with a hollow construction and an internal core.

For both snubbered and wide chord blades, a conventional fine grain titanium alloy - 6% aluminium and 4% vanadium (Ti6Al4V) is used. It is simple in terms of chemistry, with the aluminium offering strengthening and low density, and the vanadium making hot working of the material easier. It is used for discs and compressor blades up to about 350°C, but excellent superplastic forming and solid state diffusion bonding capabilities make it particularly suitable for the wide chord blade.

The low density core for the hollow design is an integral part of the structure. The two external skins are separated by either honeycomb filler or a superplastically formed corrugation which carries a share of the centrifugal load. Both panel-to-panel and core-to-panel joints must achieve parent material properties to withstand the effects of foreign body impact and fatigue.

For the first generation design the joints are made by a transient liquid phase diffusion bonding process, whereas the second generation employs solid state diffusion bonding in association with superplastic forming of the assembly. The cavity of the bonded construction is inflated at elevated temperatures between contoured metal dies using an inert gas to expand the core and simultaneously develop the blade's external aerodynamic profile.

The reliability of these wide chord blades has been second to none. The step in technology produced a major competitive advantage and ten years passed before an equivalent design appeared from a manufacturer other than Rolls Royce. This service record was the result of thorough development testing. Fatigue testing in both low and high cycle modes was essential. Groups of blades were repeatedly accelerated to maximum speed in vacuum to establish low cycle endurance, and high cycle fatigue was investigated on a static vibration rig up to the maximum stress levels likely to be encountered in service.

With a large forward facing area, resistance to bird ingestion is required. Ingestion of a number of medium size birds has to be demonstrated by running an engine at take-off power and requiring it to ingest four birds within the space of one second. The engine continued to deliver power, accelerating and decelerating for a total period of thirty minutes to simulate the likely operating procedure following a severe ingestion incident.

In the very unlikely event of a blade mechanical failure, the engine has to be shown to be structurally sound and to contain all the debris, even if the failure occurs at maximum power. Containment in modern engines is achieved with aluminium or titanium casings through which the blade fragments can penetrate, to be caught in external windings of Kevlar.

Adhesives – Modern Types of Adhesives

2006-12-27T00:57:00.000-08:00

A bewildering variety of adhesives are available from a range of adhesive manufacturers. However, it is possible to simplify the choice by classifying the adhesive, and this can be done either by the way they are used or by their chemical type. The strongest adhesives solidify by a chemical reaction, Weaker varieties harden by some physical change. The major classifications are described in the following sections.
Anaerobics

Anaerobic adhesives cure when in contact with metal, and the air is excluded, e.g. when a bolt is home in a thread. They are often known as "locking compounds", being used to secure, seal and retain turned, threaded, or similarly close fitting parts. They are based on synthetic acrylic resins.
Cyanoacrylates

Cyanoacrylate adhesives cure through reaction with moisture held on the surface to be bonded. They need close fitting joints and usually solidify in seconds. Cyanoacrylates are suited to small plastic parts and to rubber. They are a special type of acrylic resin.
Toughened Acrylics

Toughened acrylics are fast curing and offer high strength and toughness. Both one and two part systems are available. In two part systems, no mixing is required because the adhesive is applied to one substrate, the activator to the second substrate, and the substrates joined. They tolerate minimal surface preparation and bond well to a wide range of materials.
Epoxies

Epoxy adhesives consist of an epoxy resin plus a hardener. They allow great versatility in formulation since there are many resins and many different hardeners. Epoxy adhesives can be used to join most materials. These materials have good strength, do not produce volatiles during curing, and have low shrinkage. However, epoxies can have low peel strength and flexibility and can be brittle. Epoxy adhesives are available in one part, two part and film form and produce extremely strong durable bonds with most materials.
Polyurethanes

Polyurethane adhesives are chemically reactive formulations that may be one or two part systems and are usually fast curing. They provide strong resilient joints which are impact resistant and have better low temperature strength than any other adhesive. Polyurethanes are useful for bonding glass fibre reinforced plastics (GRP). The fast cure usually necessitates applying the adhesives by machine. They are often used with primers.
Silicones

Silicones are not very strong adhesives, but are known for their flexibility and high temperature resistance. They are available in single or two part forms. The latter function like the two part epoxies, the former like the single part polyurethanes. When the single part adhesives cure they liberate either alcohol or acetic acid (the familiar smell of vinegar). They are often used as bath and shower sealants. Their adhesion to surfaces is only fair but like their flexibility, their durability is excellent. The two part versions need a hardening agent to be mixed into the resin. Two forms are available, those which liberate acid on curing and those that do not. As might be anticipated the two part adhesive systems give a better cure in thick sections than do the single part types.

Titanium Alloys – Titanium / Palladium Alloys Grade 11 and Grade 17

2006-12-26T01:33:00.000-08:00

This alloy has mechanical properties similar to commercially pure titanium grade 1, but with palladium added to enhance corrosion resistance in crevices and reducing acid chloride environments. As with grade 1, grade 11 has optimum ductility and cold formability. It has useful strength, high impact toughness and excellent weldability.
Ti-0.05Pd – Grade 17

Grade 17 is identical to grade 11, with the exception that the palladium added to improve corrosion resistance is less then with grade 11. Mechanical and physical properties, specifications and forms are all identical to grade 11.

The alloy composition differs by the reduction of Pd to 0.04-0.08%.
Titanium Ruthenium Alloys

The poor availability and high cost of palladium have led to the development of ruthenium as an alternative alloy addition to provide similar enhancement of corrosion resistance but at lower cost. The relevant ASTM Grade is 27 (CP Grade 1 + 0.1%Ru). Mechanical and physical properties are of the same order as described for grades 11 and 17.

Titanium and Titanium Alloys - Conditions for the Formation and Repair of the Titanium Oxide Film and that Influence Corrosion Resistance

2006-12-25T01:35:00.000-08:00

Titanium is a highly reactive metal. Fortunately the oxide film which forms spontaneously and is always present in oxidising environments is stable and self healing if damaged. It is this film which gives titanium its outstanding resistance to corrosion in a wide range of aggressive media.
Conditions for the Formation and Repair of the Titanium Oxide Film

The question often asked is, “what is meant by ‘oxidising environment’?” In fact the titanium oxide film is self supporting and self healing not only in oxidising environments, but also in neutral and mildly reducing conditions. For titanium ‘oxidising’ means conditions where a critical minimum level of oxidising agent is present in the media, under conditions where it can react with titanium preferentially to repair or inhibit further breakdown of the oxide film. This covers a wide range of chemicals, mixtures, process conditions and products.
Examples of Conditions for the Formation and Repair of the Titanium Oxide Film

In practice, air, moisture, moist gases, water, even heavily polluted brackish water and sea water will support the oxide film. Deaeration of an aqueous media does not affect the corrosion resistance of titanium, because water alone supports the oxide film. Only traces (e.g. ppm) of moisture or oxygen are required to maintain passive behaviour in most environments. Notable exceptions are chlorine gas, red fuming nitric acid and methanol where specific concentrations of moisture from 1.5% up to 10% are required to support the oxide film on titanium alloys under the worst conditions of environment and temperature.
Environments that will Attack Titanium

Pure reducing acids, hydrochloric, sulphuric, phosphoric etc, will attack titanium in proportion to concentration and temperature. Titanium is inhibited from attack, and its oxide film supported by the presence of limited concentrations of oxidising ions such as Fe3+, Cu2+ and others shown below. Inhibition becomes less effective as acid concentration and temperature increase. No inhibition is available to prevent breakdown of the titanium oxide film by hydrofluoric acid and acidic fluorides.

Alumina (Aluminium Oxide) – The Different Types of Commercially Available Grades

2006-12-24T01:50:00.000-08:00

Alumina is the most widely used oxide ceramic material. Its applications are widespread, and include spark plugs, tap washers, pump seals, electronic substrates, grinding media, abrasion resistant tiles, cutting tools, bioceramics, (hip-joints), body armour, laboratory ware and wear parts for the textile and paper industries. Very large tonnages are also used in the manufacture of monolithic and brick refractories. It is also used mixed with other materials such as flake graphite where even more severe applications are envisaged, such as pouring spouts and sliding gate valves.
Key Properties

The characteristics which alumina has and which are important for these applications are shown below.

· High compression strength

· High hardness

· Resistant to abrasion

· Resistant to chemical attack by a wide range of chemicals even at elevated temperatures

· High thermal conductivity

· Resistant to thermal shock

· High degree of refractoriness

· High dielectric strength

· High electrical resistivity even at elevated temperatures

· Transparent to microwave radio frequencies

· Low neutron cross section capture area

· Raw material readily available and price not subject to violent fluctuation
Annual Production

Annual production of alumina is some 45 million tonnes, of which 90% is used in the manufacture of aluminium metal by electrolysis.
Where Does Alumina Come From?

Most of the aluminium oxide produced commercially is obtained by the calcination of aluminium hydroxide (frequently termed alumina trihydrate or ATH). The aluminium hydroxide is virtually all made by the Bayer Process. This involves the digestion of bauxite in caustic soda and the subsequent precipitation of aluminium hydroxide by the addition of fine seed crystals of aluminium hydroxide.
Phases of Alumina

Aluminium oxide exists in many forms, a, c, h, d, k, q, g, r; these arise during the heat treatment of aluminium hydroxide or aluminium oxy hydroxide. The most thermodynamically stable form is a-aluminium oxide.
Aluminium Hydroxides

Aluminium forms a range of hydroxides; some of these are well characterised crystalline compounds, whilst others are ill-defined amorphous compounds. The most common trihydroxides are gibbsite, bayerite and nordstrandite, whilst the more common oxide hydroxide forms are boehmite and diaspore.

Commercially the most important form is gibbsite, although bayerite and boehmite are also manufactured on an industrial scale.

Aluminium hydroxide has a wide range of uses, such as flame retardants in plastics and rubber, paper fillers and extenders, toothpaste filler, antacids, titania coating and as a feedstock for the manufacture of aluminium chemicals, e.g. aluminium sulfate, aluminium chlorides, poly aluminium chloride, aluminium nitrate.
Commercial Grades of Alumina
Smelter Grade Alumina

Smelter or metallurgical grade alumina is the name given to alumina utilised in the manufacture of aluminium metal. Historically it was manufactured from aluminium hydroxide using rotary kilns but is now generally produced in fluid bed or fluid flash calciners. In the fluid flash processes the aluminium hydroxide is fed into a counter-current stream of hot air obtained by burning fuel oil or gas. The first effect is that of removing the free water and this is followed by removal of the chemically combined water; this occurs over a range of temperatures between 180-600ºC. The dehydrated alumina is principally in the form of activated alumina and the surface area gradually decreases as the temperature rises towards 1000ºC. Further calcination at temperatures > 1000ºC converts this to the more stable a-form. The conversion to the a-form is typically of the order of 25% and the specific surface area is relatively high at >50m²/g due to the presence of transition aluminas.

Airless Drying For Reduced Drying Times, Improved Quality, More Versatility and Less Space Requirement, CERAM Technology

2006-12-23T01:47:00.000-08:00

CERAM Technology is dedicated to easing the implementation of new technology for clients in the ceramics and other materials - based industries. Providing the critical interface between research and development and full-scale production, CERAM Technology undertakes industrial liaison, plant trials and consultancy activities for all stages of enabling technology.

Energy efficiency in process operations is increasingly important to manufacturers in terms of both their competitiveness and their environmental conservation commitments. Substantial benefits can be obtained in ceramic processing if a conventional dryer is replaced by an airless dryer.
Key Properties

The energy demands of a conventional dryer are a result of the energy required to evaporate the moisture from the product and the heating of the air flowing through the dryer and eventually to atmosphere.

Airless drying is a novel patented drying system which re-circulates the heated dryer atmosphere and eliminates energy losses to the flue whilst generating a high humidity atmosphere allowing raised heating cycles without causing damage to the product.

A schematic to show The principle of operation of an Airless Drying System.

Abrasives and Abrasive Materials

2006-12-22T01:46:00.000-08:00

Abrasives are those materials used in operations such as grinding, polishing, lapping, honing, pressure blasting or other similar process. Abrasives come in different particle or grit sizes depending on how much material needs to be removed.

Materials used for abrasives are generally characterised by high hardness, and moderate to high fracture toughness.
How They Work

Each hard abrasive particle acts like a single point cutting tool. With hundreds if not thousands available in a small area, the effect they produce is quite significant.

Coarser grades/grits of abrasive are used where high volumes of material need to be removed, such as in coarse polishing, large scratch removal or operations requiring significant shape or dimensional change. Finer grades are generally used after coarser grades to produce a higher surface finish than are possible with coarse grades.
Materials Used for Abrasives

Some materials that are used as abrasives include:

· Silicon carbide, generally used for non-ferrous metals

· Aluminium oxide or alumina, the most widely used abrasive, generally used for ferrous alloys, high tensile materials and wood.

· Diamond, most often used in ceramic grinding or final polishing due to high hardness and cost

· Cubic boron nitride (CBN)

· Garnet, usually used for machining of wood.

· Zirconia/Alumina alloys, suited to carbon and stainless steels and welds

· Glass, usually used for pressure blasting operations.

· Colloidal silica, generally used for finishing operations as it is only available as a suspension of extremely fine particles.